FARM 

SHOP 
WOEK 




Class 

Book 

Copyright }I°_ 



COPyRFGHT DEPOSn> 



FARM SHOP WORK 

PRACTICAL MANUAL TRAINING 



BY 1^ 

GEORGE Mf BRACE 

DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL 
ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA 

AND 

D. D. MAYNE 

PRINCIPAL OF SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND PROFESSOR 

OF AGRICULTURAL PEDAGOGICS, UNIVERSITY 

OF MINNESOTA 



WITH AN INTRODUCTION 
BY 

C. A. PROSSER 

SECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR 
THE PROMOTION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 




AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 



31 



Copyright, 1915, by 
GEORGE M. BRACE and D. D. MAYNE 



FARM SHOP WORK 
E. P. I 



JUN-5i9l5 

^OIA4 06!60 



INTRODUCTION 

By C. a. Prosser 

Secretary of the National Society for the Promotion 
OF Industrial Education 

This book is written primarily for pupils taking 
agriculture in elementary and secondary schools, and 
for pupils in the practical arts work of schools in 
rural communities ; but it also has suggestions of 
great merit for farmers and others who have to deal 
in any way with the varied repair and construction 
problems of farm and village life. 

Not until the rural schools realize that their manual 
training and shop work must be entirel}^ different from 
that of the city schools will they serve properly the 
vocational needs of the children who are to spend their 
•lives on the farm or in the village. 

The aim of the practical arts courses in agricultural 
communities should be to give the boy at least an 
elementary experience in every form of manual work 
required to make an independent and successful farmer 
on his home acres. Such training will make the farm 
more attractive. It will also equip the farmer for more 
successful work in agriculture, both because he is pre- 
pared to meet the everyday demands of his calling and 
because he is saved the time and expense of relying on 
the village mechanic for much that the school should 
prepare him to do. 



/^_^ i^c:/0/7 



iv INTRODUCTION 

In most of our thinking to-day on the subject of 
manual training or practical arts in the rural schools, 
we have stopped with the idea of woodwork. Too 
often this woodwork is taught with little reference to 
its connection with the home life and agricultural 
career of the boy. The courses and methods have 
been borrowed all too frequently from the work of the 
city schools. 

The farm boy and man must work in wood : in the 
making of fences, in the repair of tools and machinery, 
and in the repair and construction of farm implements, 
conveniences, and buildings. It is far more important 
that he should know how to deal with wood in these 
things than that he should be highly skilled in the 
making of mission furniture. It is training in the 
work of the ordinary rough carpenter rather than in 
that of the finished furniture maker that will be most 
beneficial to the farmer. He needs to know how to 
handle all the ordinary tools of the carpenter and how 
to put wood together. His practice should be on farm 
things and should result in a usable output of farm 
things. 

An outfit of ordinary farm implements of the simplest 
kind can be constructed for the use of the school. Pu- 
pils should be encouraged to bring from home articles 
that need to be repaired. They should also be en- 
couraged to set up a workshop on the farm and to do 
more extensive and ambitious repair and construction 
jobs, as supplementary to the school instruction. It 
goes without saying that successful results can only be 
secured when the teacher in charge of this training is 
not only able to sense the demands of the farm home 



INTRODUCTION v 

by having actually experienced them, but is also able 
intelligently to direct the efforts of the boy. 

The farmer must know how to shape iron for uses in 
all sorts of things. The school should be equipped 
with a small forge, and the boy be trained in the forg- 
ing and tempering of iron, the cutting and soldering 
of sheet metal. He should be trained to think his 
problem through by making at least rough diagrams 
of his plans in dealing with material of all kinds. 

He should be able to meet successfully emergency 
repairs on harness and belting. This means that the 
school should give him an elementary experience in the 
cutting, shaping, fitting, and sewing of leather, which 
can only result from training in actual repair problems. 

The use of cement on the farm is increasing enor- 
mously. The ordinary farmer can now with some in- 
struction use it successfully for most of the purposes for 
which it is employed in the country home. Hence it 
follows that the school should give the boy instruction 
in such things as the making of molds for cement work, 
the laying of foundations and the construction of posts, 
floors, and walks. 

One of the most difficult questions confronting the 
work in industrial education to-day is the kind of in- 
dustrial training which should be offered in villages 
and small towns. The diversified character of its in- 
dustrial hfe, sometimes the entire absence of manufac- 
turing, together with the certainty that only a small 
number of persons would care to be, or should be, 
trained for any one occupation, make it impossible 
for these small communities to undertake any program 
of industrial education which aims to give specific 



vi INTRODUCTION 

preparation for any one industry or trade. This has, 
in many cases, prevented such places from under- 
taking any work whatever of this character. 

The solution of the problem in my opinion lies in 
a course in the practical arts in the upper grades and 
in the high school, which will serve a double aim. It will 
give the village boy an experience in manual work from 
which he will derive all the customary values, and which 
will fit him to be a ''jack of all trades," if he so elects. 
At the same time it will give the boy from the farm a 
training in a range of activities which will fit him to 
meet, as a "jack of all trades," the ordinary everyday 
demands of farm life. 

This book has been written from such points of view 
as the foregoing, and will find its largest field of useful- 
ness as a text or reference book in the hands of pupils 
of rural elementary and secondary schools. It offers a 
course of instruction in farm shop work which includes 
working the four fundamental materials used on the farm 
— wood, metal, leather, and cement. All the jobs under- 
taken by the pupil deal in a very practical way with the 
repair or construction of things which are used in the 
actual work of the farm. For example, the woodwork- 
ing covers instruction in the making of the bench hook, 
level square, sawbuck, porch chair, clothesrack, clothes- 
tree, seed testing box, sheep feeding trough, trap nest, 
chicken feed box, wagon-jack, hammer handle, plank 
drag for roads, sewing horse, trussed ladder, combina- 
tion ladder, farmer's level, corn rack, cattle rack, hog 
cot, wagon box, workbench, tool chest. 

The treatment of each task which the pupil is to 
undertake is excellent from the standpoint of good 



INTRODUCTION vii 

teaching. Throughout the language is simple and the 
explanations and directions clear. Each new article to 
be made is described and its use explained at the outset. 
Numerous illustrations illuminate the text. 

From the outset, the pupil is engaged in the making 
of usable things. The assignment of work is by 
separate jobs or projects to individual pupils. The 
aim is to lead him to an understanding through prac- 
tice rather than through either theory alone or through 
unapplied exercises. The realness and usefulness of 
the work performed will undoubtedly appeal to the 
interest of both the bo}^ and his parent. The pupil 
is led gradually to rely more and more upon the text 
and less upon the teacher, which promotes self-help, 
an indispensable asset to the worker on the farm and 
in the farm shop. The book offers on every page ex- 
cellent suggestions to the boy who has unoccupied 
time on his hands and makes possible school credit for 
shop work done at home. Practice and thinking about 
the practice, doing useful things while at the same 
time the work is directed and interpreted — this is 
the cardinal principle on which the treatment of practi- 
cal arts work has been based throughout. 

The farmer will find the book a mine of information 
as to all such things as the care and use of shop tools, 
the repair and construction of farm implements, devices 
and buildings of all kinds. School boys will have in it 
an admirable guide in undertaking to make either at 
home or at school useful things which have a definite 
and helpful place in country, village, and town life. It 
should give them a genuine interest in the repair and 
construction of new as well as familiar things and make 



viii INTRODUCTION 

them self-reliant workers relieved from dependence on 
the specialist for much of the ordinary mechanical work 
of the country district. 

The book carries a special message also to the teacher 
who is in any way engaged in the teaching of manual 
training, practical arts, or shop work in the rural, 
consohdated, or agricultural high school. Throughout, 
the vocational opportunities of practical arts work 
in its application to agricultural life are emphasized. 
Teachers are too often singularly lacking in a concep- 
tion of the purpose and possibilities of farm shop work 
as it has been taught in the schools. When they have 
been trained in manual training classes deahng almost 
entirely with the problems of the work in cities or with 
more or less traditional courses, they find it difficult to 
adjust their courses and methods to meet rural condi- 
tions and requirements. They need, as all of us as teach- 
ers do, to have their work interpreted in terms of its use 
in the fives of their students, as the authors have done. 

Even the unskilled teacher of the country school en- 
tirely without experience in handfing the matter, will find 
in the book a wealth of suggestions as to what country 
boys might do, and how they can be helped to do it. 

The authors have brought to their task a long, 
varied, and intimate experience in deafing with the 
farm and school problems of the great agricultural 
state of Minnesota. They have sensed a real need of 
the rural schools and have offered what in my opinion 
is the only sound basis for the solution of *'prevoca- 
jtional," "practical arts," "manual training," or "in- 
dustrial training" for the children of our small towns 
and rural districts. 



PREFACE 

The purpose of this book is to provide a series of 
projects in woodworking, blacksmithing, cement and 
concrete work, and harness mending. These exercises 
will not only furnish valuable training in the practical 
arts, but will also result in the making of many things 
that are of great use on the farm. 

In case the time devoted to industrial work is too 
short for the class to do all the regular exercises pro- 
vided in this book, the teacher should select those that 
involve the uses of the most common tools and the 
description of the most important processes. If more 
time is allotted to industrial work than is necessary 
for the regular exercises, the supplementary projects 
may be undertaken. The making of furniture should 
not be commenced until the pupil has mastered the 
woodworking tools. 

The pupil should be required to make in pencil a 
complete working drawing with full-size details of the 
project he is about to make. Plans for farm buildings 
should be required as supplementary work in drawing. 
The teacher should standardize his work by requiring 
a definite procedure to be followed in tool operations. 
After a standard of manipulation has been adopted, 
the work of the class should be held to that standard. 

The authors are indebted to C. G. Schulz, Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction, Minnesota, to A. V. 



X PREFACE 

Storm, Professor of Agricultural Education, University 
of Minnesota, and to many teachers of manual training 
in the rural communities of Minnesota for their help- 
ful suggestions in the preparation of the manuscript. 
Credit for the exercises given under the subject of 
Blacksmithing is due Mr. A. D. Johnston, Instructor 
in Forging, Agricultural College of Minnesota. Thanks 
are due the several publications which have granted 
permission to use the designs accredited to them in 
the text. 



CONTENTS 



WOODWORKING 

LESSON ^'^'^'^ 

I. Bench Hook i 

II. Level Square lo 

III. Sawbuck 20 

IV. Folding Sawbuck 27 

V. Porch Chair 3i 

VI. Clothes Rack 36 

VII. Clothes Tree 39 

VIII. Seed Testing Box 44 

IX. Sheep-feeding Trough 49 

X. Chicken Feed Box 56 

XI. Trap Nest 61 

XII. Wagon Jack 66 

XIII. Hammer Handle 71 

XIV. Plank Drag for Roads 75 

XV. Sewing Horse 79 

XVI. Trussed Ladder 85 

XVII. Combination Ladder 89 

XVIII. Farmer's Level 96 

XIX. Leveling Rod 105 

XX. Three Horse Evener 109 

XXI. Farm Gate ■ . .113 

XXII. Corn Rack ^ . .118 

XXIII. Cattle Rack 122 

XXIV. Hog Cot 127 

XXV. Wagon Box . . . ' i33 

XXVI. Work Bench 138 

XXVII. Tool Chest 146 

XXVIII. Timber IS9 

XXIX. Woodworking Tools ....... 165 

xi 



Xll 



CONTENTS 



LESSON 

XXX. Uses of the Steel Square 

XXXI. Glue in Woodworking 

XXXII. Filing Saws and Grinding Edge Tools 



177 
185 
189 



BLACKSMITHING 

XXXIII. The Forge and Anvil 198 

XXXIV. Staple 201 

XXXV. Gate Hook 204 

XXXVI. Bolt 207 

XXXVII. Chain and Hook 210 

XXXVIII. Swivel 217 

XXXIX. Tongs 221 

XL. Wrench . 224 

XLI. Harness Hook 227 

XLII. Irons for Wagon Jack 229 

XLIII. Irons for Three-horse Evener .... 230 

XLIV. Irons for Plank Drag 234 

XLV. Irons for Combination Ladder 235 

XLVI. Iron for Leveling Rod 237 

XLVII. Irons for Farm Gate 238 

XLVIII. Irons for Cattle Rack and Corn Rack . . . 239 

XLIX. Irons for Wagon Box 240 

L. Tool Steel • . . . . 242 

CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK 

LI. Cement and Concrete 246 

LII. Sidewalks and Floors 252 

LIII. Foundation Walls and Steps 256 

LIV. Concrete Troughs . . . . . . 259 

LV. Fence Posts » 264 

LEATHER WORK 

LVI. Harness Mending 269 

SUGGESTIONS FOR ADDITIONAL WORK .... 275 

INDEX . 287 



WOODWORKING 

LESSON I 

BENCH HOOK 

Stock 

I pc. white pine J''X4l''x8i'' 4 screws ij'', No. 8, F. H. B. 
I pc. white pine |"Xif"X4i'' (F. H. B.=flat head, bright) 
I pc. white pinef Xif'X4'' 

Tools 



Rule Marking gauge 


Plane 


Try-square Saw 


Brace and bit 




Screw driver 


Operations 




I. Laying out. 




2. Surfacing one side. 




3. Planing one edge. 




4. Squaring one end. 




5. Laying out length, width. 


thickness. 



6. Planing to thickness. 

7. Sawing to length. 

8. Planing to length. 

9. Sawing to width. 

10. Planing to width. 

11. Making blocks. 

12. Laying out screw holes. 

13. Boring screw holes. 

14. Assembling. 

In explaining this first exercise, it is assumed that 



WOODWORKING 



the pupil knows nothing about the operations. Even 
though he has performed some of them many times 
before, it will be to his advantage to follow directions 
as carefully as though it were the first time he ever 



± 



/' 




Fig, I. — Working Drawing of Bench Hook. 



MH 



e 



held tools in his hands. Follow directions carefully. 

Do not hurry. 

I. Lay out the dimensions on a piece of white pine 

board. Some allowance must be made for squaring up, 

so the pieces should be 
laid out a little larger 
than the finished dimen- 
sions. (Laying out means 
marking the lines that 
represent the shape and 
sizes of the various pieces 
which, when cut out 
and put together, or as- 
sembled, make the exer- 
cise.) The first opera- 
tion in laying out is to 
select an end nearly 
square with one edge of 
the board. If neither 
end is square, square a 



•^1 



I*/' 



T 

\ 

1 







\-I 



ii^ 



Fig. 2. — Working Drawing of Bench 
Hook. Top and Side Views, 



BENCH HOOK 




line across one end with a try-square and saw on this 
hne. 

With the rule measure off S^" from this end. In 
measuring with a rule, do not lay it flat down on the 
board ; stand it on edge so that the marks on the 
rule meet the surface 
of the board. In this 
way the knife blade 
can touch the mark on 
the rule and the wood 
at the same time. 
(See Fig. 3.) If this 
method is followed al- 
ways, there will be no 
excuse for making mis- 
takes in measurements : 
if the rule is laid flat, p^^ ^ 
the measurements will 

likely be inaccurate. When it is necessary to make 
more than one measurement, if the rule is not raised 
from the work, the chance of making mistakes is there- 
by lessened. If the 
board is too wide, the 
width should be meas- 
ured also. 

With the try-square 
on the 8J'' mark, line 
across the board. If 
the board is wider than 
the length of the blade of the try-square, use a car- 
penter's steel square, or extend the length of the 
blade as shown in Fig. 4, by placing a rule on 



Position of Rule in Measuring. 




Fig. 4. — Squaring across a Wide 
Board. 



WOODWORKING 




the board against the 
blade of the try-square, 
and Uning across with 
this. In using the try- 
square place the knife 
blade on the point ; 
move the blade of the 

Fig. 5. — Placing THE Knife Blade ON Point. try-Square Up tO the 

knife blade and Kne across. (Figs. 5 and 6.) 

2. Surfacing one side. — Select a surface that is flat 

and without wind ; with 

this surface up, lay the 

board on the bench 

with one end against 

the bench stop, which is 

some kind of a wooden 

or iron plug projecting 

from one end of the 

bench ; and with the 

plane, plane the surface smooth and flat. Test the sur- 
face across the grain and with the grain by the try-square 

as in Fig. 7. (Wind 
is a twisting curve 
or warp in some 
boards.) 

3. Planing one 
edge, —r When one 
surface is planed 
smooth and true, 
two witness marks 
(see Fig. 7) are 

Fig. 7. — Testing Surface of Board. made On this SUr- 




FiG. 6. — Using the Try-square. 




BENCH HOOK 



5 



face near one edge ; this edge is next to be trued up 
square with the surface. Place the board in the vise 




Fig. 8. — Using Try-square to Test a Square Corner. 

and plane until the edge is square with the surface 
just finished. Its truth 
can be tested by the try- 
square. (See Fig. 8.) 
When true, two more 
witness marks are 
drawn on the edge end- 
ing at the surface. 

4. Squaring one end. 
— In squaring up one 
end, place the board up- 
right in the vise with 
the finished edge next 
to the body ; when planing across the grain, to prevent 
the blade from splintering off pieces from the farther 

FARM SHOP WORK — 2 




Fig. q. — One Method of Preventing 
Splintering in Using Plane. 




6 WOODWORKING 

edge, either place a block of waste material back of the 
farther edge and on a level with the end of the board, 
B, Fig. 9, and plane across this, allowing the splinters 
to come from the waste material ; or, if there is enough 
waste material in the board, chisel off one corner on 

the edge farthest from 
the body. (See Fig. 
lo.) The end must be 
made square with the 
finished edge, also with 
the finished surface. 

5. Laying out length, 
width, thickness. — 
When one end is 

Fig. 10. — Another Method of Preventing SCJUarecl up, lay OUt 
Splintering in Using Plane. ^J^g length by measur- 

ing 8'' from the squared end and square across with a 
knife and try-square, resting the beam against the 
finished edge. 

Lay out the width with the marking gauge ; set the 
guide of the gauge at the 4'' mark on the beam and, 
with the guide resting against the finished edge, gauge 
the entire length of the board. The thickness is laid 
out with the marking gauge set at f . The proper 
way to set the guide of the marking gauge is to measure 
with the rule the distance required from the guide 
to the spur, as shown in Fig. 11. In holding the gauge 
for lining. Fig. 12 shows how the tool is grasped in the 
hand with the thumb in front of the spur and the first 
finger over the guide. Tip the beam so the spur just 
touches the wood. In laying out the thickness of the 
board, measure off f '', and with the guide resting against 



BENCH HOOK 




Fig. II. — Setting the Guide of the Marking 
Gauge. 



the finished surface gauge around on all four edges. The 

gauge should be used in laying out the width. Where 

large measurements 

are required, it is 

very difficult to hold 

the gauge so it will 

score accurately; 

and, besides, the 

beam is not long 

enough for very large 

measurements. 

6. Planing to thick- 
ness. — When the 
thickness has been 
gauged, the board 
should be planed to 
this thickness. The same care that was used on the 
other sides should be exercised in planing this surface. 

7. Sawing to length. — When this work is done, the 

piece should be sawed 
to length, sawing just 
outside the knife mark 
made in laying out the 
length. It is necessary 
to leave a little wood 
outside the line so it 
will be possible to plane 

the end down smooth and square without making the 
board too short. 

8. Planing to length. — The end should be planed after 
it is sawed and the same precautions should be observed 
as were indicated in Operation 4. 




Using the Marking Gauge. 



8 WOODWORKING 

9. Sawing to width. — The next operation is to saw to 
width, sawing just outside the Hne. 

10. Planing to width. — The operation of planing to 
width must be carefully done in order to get the edge 
square with the surface, and at the same time not to 
plane below the line. 

11. Making blocks. — The next operation is laying out 
the two blocks, one to be used on the upper side and 
one on the lower side of the board. The method of 
laying out, sawing, and planing these pieces is the same 
as that used in finishing the board, so the directions 
will not be repeated here. 

12. Laying out screw holes. — After the two blocks are 
finished, the screw holes must be located. With the 

ruler or try-square, measure in 
from each end |'' and mark; 



then set the gauge at J'' and 
Fig. 13. — Location of Screw line across these marks, gauging 
^^^^' from the opposite edges at A 

and B, Fig. 13. 

13. Boring screw holes. — The next operation is boring 
the holes. Select a gimlet bit the same size as the 
screws and bore through the pieces at the places marked. 

In boring, place the screw point on the mark and 
hold the brace so that the bit is perpendicular, then 
with the left hand on the knob and holding the sweep 
with the right hand, place the forehead on the left 
hand, pressing down so as to make the bit cut. 

14. Assembling. — The last operation is assembUng ; 
this is putting together the various pieces, completing 
the project. Place the shorter piece on one end, as in 
Fig. 14, and clamp it in the vise with one edge flush. 




k//H 



BENCH HOOK 9 

or even, with one end of the board, and one end flush 
with the left-hand edge of the board. Put the screws in 
and screw them down with a 
screw driver until the head is 
flush with the surface of the 
wood. Turn the board over 
and fasten the other piece on 
the opposite side of the other 

end, with one edge flush with FiGril- Bench Hook Assembled. 

the end of the board. 

If the work has been done accurately, the pieces will 
fit nicely, and when placed in position will be square 
with the edges of the board, and the longer piece will 
just reach from edge to edge of the board. No holes 
are needed in the board for the screws, as the wood is 
soft white pine ; but if it were to be made of hard 
wood, it would be necessary to bore holes in the board, 
a trifle smaller than the screws, and the holes in the 
pieces should be countersunk. (Countersinking is ream- 
ing out the edge of the bored hole to fit the head of a 
wood screw.) 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why does the gauge mark more easily when held at an angle 
than when held vertical ? 

2. Why should the point of the gauge be sharpened like a knife 
point rather than like a round point ? 

3. Why do you bore holes through the small pieces and not into 
the board ? 

4. Why are the screws placed on opposite edges of the small 
pieces instead of on the same edge ? 



LESSON II 

LEVEL SQUARE 

Stock 

I pc. white pine f' X 2Y' X 25'' Brads f" Glue 
I pc. white pine I" X 2{'' X 13'' 

Tools 

Rule Marking gauge Plane 

Try-square Saw Chisel 

Operations 

1. Laying out. 

2. Surfacing one side. 

3. Planing one edge. 

4. Squaring one end. 

5. Laying out length and width and thickness. 

6. Planing to thickness. 

7. Sawing to length. 

8. Planing to length. 

9. Sawing to width. 

10. Planing to width. 

11. Laying out halved joint. 

12. Sawing halved joint. 

13. Trimming halved joint. 

14. Gluing. 

15. Squaring up corners. 

16. Laying out scale for plumb bob. 



LEVEL SQUARE 



II 



Requirements. — The pieces are to be of the exact 
length, width, and thickness called for in the drawing. 
The two ends halved are to be fitted together so the 
surfaces are flush with each other, and the outside and 
inside corners square. 

When two pieces of wood of equal thickness are to 
be fitted together so that the surfaces are flush, the 
halved joint is commonly used. In making this joint, 
one half of the thickness is cut 
out of each of the pieces for a 
distance equal to the width of 
the pieces. 

There are two methods com- 
monly used ; in one, the joint is 
laid out according to measure- 
ments, and in the other, the 
laying out is done by super- 
imposing, which is laying one 
piece on the other and marking , 
the width by hning along the ^ { 
edges. The latter method is not 



so accurate, because when the ^'^- 15. -Working Drawing 

OF Level Square. 

pieces are cut along the Imes 

marked out, the cut is too large, and the two parts 
make a poor fit. In order to prevent this, it is neces- 
sary to cut inside the lines with the saw and trim with 
the chisel. This makes a " cut and try " method, 
which is not recommended. If the work is laid out 
accurately, if all measurements are exact, and if the 
cuts are on the Hnes, the pieces will fit together with the 
pressure of the hands, requiring no forcing, neither 
will they be so loose as to fall apart. 



12 



WOODWORKING 



^4 



i-io. First Ten Operations. — Lay out the pieces f " X 
X 2^" and \" X 2\" X \^" so as to leave enough 
stock for planing, and follow in order the directions for 
the first ten operations given in Lesson L 

II. Laying out halved joint. — In laying out the halved 
joint, lay oflF 2" from one end and square across one 
surface and two edges. Then set the gauge at f " and 
gauge across the end and along both edges to the knife 
lines. 

In gauging, be careful to keep the guide against the 
part to be removed in one piece and against the part 

remaining in the other 
piece. 

It is necessary to take 
great care in making 
any joint, both in lay- 
ing out and in cutting. 
12. Sawing halved 
joint. — If the pupil feels 
confident that he can do 
careful and accurate 
work with the saw, he 
may follow the direc- 
tions given under a. If 
not quite sure, it will be wise to follow the directions 
given under h. 

a. Hold the piece perpendicular in the vise, as 
in Fig. 16. Hold the thumb nail of the left hand in 
the groove made by the marking gauge and set the 
teeth of the rip saw so that they will just touch the 
thumb nail, and so will split the line. 

Saw very carefully down to the line squared across 




Fig. 16. 



First Cut in Making Halved 
Joint. 



LEVEL SQUARE 



13 




Fig, 17.- 



•Second Cut in Making Halved 
Joint. 



the edge. In this operation watch the back of the piece 
as carefully as the front. 

Place the piece on the bench hook, and with the cross- 
cut saw split the line squared across the surface, making 
the shoulder down to 
the saw cut already 
made. Be sure that 
the saw cut, or kerf, 
is alwaj^s made in the 
material to be removed. 
(Fig. 17.) 

If these sawing oper- 
ations have been made 
carefully and accu- 
rately, the two pieces 
will fit together without any further trimming and 
fitting. 

b. This operation is to be recommended unless the 
pupil is certain that he can do very accurate work in 
sawing. It is expected that the pupil, after a little 
practice, will be able to saw all joints where sawing is 
possible. 

The advantages of the sawed joints are that glue 
holds the parts together better, and time and labor are 
saved in the extra operations. The work should be 
held just the same as in 12, a, but instead of splitting 
the lines, the saw should be held at such a distance 
from the lines that the teeth just miss touching it. 

13. Trimming halved joint. — Remove with the chisel 
the stock left between the kerf and the line. Hold the 
piece on the bench hook or in the vise and with an 
inch chisel cut down through the scored line, taking 



H 



WOODWORKING 




Fig. i8. — Testing Squareness of Shoulder. 



care not to cut off the line. Test the squareness of the 
line with the try-square, as in Fig. i8. If this shoulder 
is not exactly square, it will be impossible to fit the 

two arms together so 
that they will be 
square. Do not use 
a narrow chisel, for it 
is more difficult to 
chisel a straight line 
with it than with a 
wide one. 

After the shoulder 

is chiseled square, 

place the piece in the vise, and chisel the inside of the 

tongue down to the line. (See Fig. 19.) Square up this 

surface to see that it is flat in all directions. 

If the grain of the wood is crooked so that it will 
split down below the line if chiseled in this way, 
then use the following 
method. 

Place the piece edge- 
wise against a waste 
piece, and put both of 
them in the vise so 
that the piece will lie 
horizontally, and chisel 
across the grain of the 
wood, as in Fig. 20, 
down to the line. 

14. Gluing. — Hold the two pieces of the halved joint 
in the vise and test both inside and outside angles with 
the try-square. In gluing this joint, rub the glue on to 




Fig. 19. — Chiseling Inside of Tongue. 



LEVEL SQUARE 



15 




Fig. 20. — Chiseling across the Grain. 



the surface of one piece, and on the shoulders of both 
pieces. In forcing the pieces together, be sure to force 
the edges up against the two shoulders ; then fasten 
securely with the f brads, leaving enough of the heads 
projecting so that the 
brads may be pulled out 
again after the glue has 
set. If hot glue is used, 
it will set in a few hours ; 
but if cold fish glue is 
used, it will require 24 
hours to set. 

15. Squaring up corners. — When the glue is set, re- 
move the brads and trim off the surplus glue with a 
chisel, taking care not to cut the wood. Test the 
squareness of the corners and the flatness of the sur- 
faces with the try-square. 

Take off a thin shaving with the plane 
to true up and make a neat appearance. 
Drive the brads back in place and clinch 
them. 

16. Laying out scale for plumb bob. — 
Drive a brad in the free end of the longer 
arm of the square, and attach to this a 
fine silk thread as long as the arm ; split 
a buckshot or BB shot and attach to 
the thread at a point so near the corner 
just clear the bench top when placed as 




Fig. 21. — Plumb 
Line and Bob. 



that it wi] 
in Fig. 21. 

In laying out the scale for the plumb bob, select 
a surface that is perfectly level by a spirit level, and 
standing the square on this make a mark under the 



i6 WOODWORKING 

thread. A spirit level is a small straight piece of wood 
or iron in one edge of which is placed a glass tube 
containing alcohol or spirits, and this is used in deter- 
mining horizontal surfaces. When a second tube is 

placed across one end, it can be 
used in determining vertical sur- 
faces also. If no level surface 
can be found, stand it on a sur- 
J I face that is slanted sufficiently 

""rr^^^ ^S^r-. to allow the thread to incline 

considerably towards one side 

Fig. 22. — Laying Out Scale i mark under the thrpad • 

FOR Plumb Bob. First Step. ^"^ marK Unuer tne tnteaO , 

then reverse the position of the 
shorter arm so the thread inclines the same distance 
in the opposite direction, and mark again. (Figs. 22 
and 23.) 

A point halfway between these two marks is the place 
at which the thread will be when the lower arm is level 
and the upright arm is plumb. To 
complete the scale several marks 
can be made equidistant from the 
center line. 

Use of the chisel. — In using a ,^-_jzzi::^--|J 
chisel, never place either hand in y—^-*— --~~~^~^^ 1 

front of the cutting edge, as a sUp fjg. 23.— Laying Out 
of the tool may cause a serious Scale for Plumb Bob. 
. -ri 1 • 1 11 Second Step. 

accident, i he chisel must be kept 
very sharp ; the method of sharpening will be given 
later. The action of the chisel in entering the wood 
is like that of a wedge, and unless the wood on one 
side gives way to the pressure, the fibers on each side 
will be forced back and crushed as in ^, Fig. 24. If 



LEVEL SQUARE 



17 




there is room for a 
shaving to be pushed 
to one side, as at B, 
then the fibers back of 
the chisel will bear the 
pressure without being 
crushed. Therefore, 
when it is necessary to 
take a heavy cut and 
to use the mallet, do 
not place the chisel on 

the line, for it will force Fig. 24. — Action of Chisel in Entering 
1 111 Wood. 

the wood back over 

the line and make the work inaccurate ; leave enough 
wood in front of the line so that a light paring cut can 

be made, trimming down 
to the line. In horizontal 
paring, the work should 
be placed in the vise so 
that the two hands are 
free to handle the tool. 

Place a piece of waste 
material back of the 
piece to be pared, and 
take a Hght cut with the 
bevel or slanting surface 
of the tool up. If the 
waste piece were not 
placed there, the pressure 
of the chisel would splin- 
ter a piece off the farther 

Fig. 25, — Chiseling from Both Sides , ... , , 

toward the Middle. edge, SpOlimg gOOd WOrk. 




i8 



WOODWORKING 




Fig. .26.- 



•A Shearing Cut with a 
Chisel. 



Another method that does not require a piece of 
waste material back of the chisel is to cut partly through 

from one side, then re- 
verse the block and finish 
from the other side. 
(See Fig. 25.) 

In taking the finishing 
cuts, turn the chisel a 
little to one side, giving 
a shearing cut, which in- 
sures a smooth surface, 
and also requires less 
force in pushing the tool. 
(See Fig. 26.) A shear- 
ing cut is made by mov- 
ing the chisel to one side while pushing it into the wood. 
In cutting across the end grain, it is almost necessary 
to use this shearing cut unless a mallet is used. Do 
not attempt a heavy cut on joint work, but rather sev- 
eral light cuts. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is it necessary to gauge from opposite sides of the two 
pieces when gauging the thickness for the halved joint ? 

2. Why is a halved joint made with the saw better than one 
made with the saw and chisel .'' 

3. When about to trim the halved joint with a chisel, how will 
you determine whether the grain is crooked ? 

4. Why is it necessary to place a piece of waste material back 
of the piece when chiseling across the grain ? 

5. Why do you use a wide chisel instead of a narrow one in 
trimming the shoulder of the joint ? 

6. Why is the double angle at the edge of the chisel better than 
a single angle ? 



LEVEL SQUARE 19 

7. Why is a smaller angle at the chisel edge better for soft wood 
than for hard wood ? 

8. In gluing up stock, which is preferable, cold, warm, or hot 
glue, and why ? 

9. In gluing the end grain, why is it better to put on two coats 
of glue, allowing the first to dry before applying the second ? 

10. Would you use glue of the same consistency in gluing oak 
that you would in gluing maple ? Why ? 



LESSON III 



SAWBUCK 



X 2\" X 2S" 



4 pes. red oak 2" X 3I 

2 pes. red oak i 

I pc. red oak i" X 6" X 18" 

I pc. round hickory 2" X 20'' 



Stock 
: 36" - 



12 screws 2", No. 10, 
F. H. B. 



Tools 

Try-square Chisel Drawknife 

Bevel square Brace and bit Spokeshave 

Saw Screw driver Marking gauge 

Carpenter's square Rule 

Operations 

1. Laying out. 

2. Surfacing one side. 

3. Planing one edge. 

4. Laying out length, width, thickness. 

5. Planing to thickness. 

6. Laying out angles at ends of legs. 

7. Sawing the angles at the ends of the legs. 

8. Planing to width. 

9. Laying the angles of the halved joint. 

10. Sawing the halved joint. 

11. ChiseHng the halved joint. 

12. Fastening the legs together. 

13. Laying out the holes for the crossbar. 



SAWBUCK 21 

14. Boring the holes for the crossbar. 

15. Trimming the ends of the crossbar. 

16. Wedging the ends of the crossbar. 

17. Laying out the braces. 

18. Sawing the braces. 

19. Chiseling the braces. 

20. Fastening the braces in place. 

Follow the directions given in Lesson L for Operations 
I to 5 inclusive. 

6. Laying out angles at ends of legs. — In this 
operation you will need a carpenter's steel square 




Fig. 27. — Method of Setting Bevel, 

and a bevel. Lay the carpenter's square on the 
bench, and place a straightedge (which is a straight 
stick of any kind) so that one edge touches the 15'' 
mark on the longer arm, called the blade, and also the 
<^" mark on the shorter arm, called the tongue. These 
dimensions, as you can see by the drawing, represent 
the perpendicular height of the joint from the ground 
and half the distance between the legs. 

Have some one hold the straightedge in place while 
you set the bevel square to this angle, holding the 
beam of the bevel against the carpenter's square, 
and adjust the blade to the straightedge ; then fasten 
the blade by tightening the thumbscrew, as shown 

FARM SHOP WORK — 3 



22 



WOODWORKING 



in Fig. 27. Lay out the angles on one leg by lining 
across, as in Fig. 28 ; and placing the bevel on the oppo- 
site edge, lay out the angle on the other end. With 
the try-square line across the edges at the points where 
the bevel cuts the corner. 

7. Sawing the angles at the ends of the legs. — 
When the angles have been laid out, they can be sawed, 
using a hacksaw and bench hook. Care should be 




Fig. 28. — Laying Out Angles on Legs of Sawbuck. 



taken in following both lines. The planing to width 
in Operation 8 is the same as in former lessons. 

9. Laying out the angles of the halved joint. — Meas- 
ure up from points a^ a, Fig. 29, on each leg ij" to points 
hy by and mark ; now lay one leg over the other so the 
points hy h touch each other, and spread the lower ends 
until the points a^ a are 18'' apart ; hold in this position 
and adjust the bevel square so the beam lies on one leg 
and the blade along the other leg. Tighten the set 
screw, and, removing the leg, line across at this point 
on both legs, but on opposite sides. In order to locate 
the other point it will be necessary to measure on a 



SAWBUCK 



23 




Fig. 29. — Working Drawing of Sawbuck. 



line perpendicular to the first line. Lay the end of 
the rule along the blade of the bevel, as in Fig. 30, 
and move the bevel down the leg until the 1" mark 
touches the mark already lined across. With the 
bevel, line across at this point, and repeat the opera- 
tion on the other leg. 

With the try-square, line halfway across the edges 
at the ends of the lines already drawn, as in Fig. 30. 
With the marking gauge set at one half the thickness 
of the legs, gauge on both edges of both legs between 
the lines ; being sure to hold the gauge guide against 
opposite surfaces of the two legs so that the amount 
of wood to be removed from one leg will exactly equal 
the material that is left in the other leg. Repeat 
these operations on the other pair of legs. 



24 



WOODWORKING 



10. Sawing the halved joints. — In sawing the 
halved joint, aWays split the lines and saw in the 
material to be removed. 

11. Chiseling the halved joints. — In chiseling the 
halved joints, follow the directions given under Use 
of the chisel in Lesson II. 

12. Fastening legs together. — In fastening the legs 
together, it would be useless to use glue, as the sawbuck 
will be in the rain many times, and the water would dis- 




FiG. 30. — Laying Out Width of Halved Joint. 

solve and wash out the glue in the joint. Therefore, it 
would be better to use screws. 

It will not be necessary to lay out the screw holes by 
measurement ; locate them with the eye as in the draw- 
ing, and, selecting a gimlet bit the size of the screws, bore 
through one leg. Place the screws in place, and, fitting 
the joint together, drive the screws into the other leg 
just far enough to mark their location. Selecting a bit 
about one half the size of the screws, bore into, or 
nearly through, the other leg at the marks made by 
the screws. Fasten together by screwing the screws 
into place, after countersinking the holes. 

13. Laying out the holes for the crossbar. — All 



SAWBUCK 



25 



that will be necessary to locate the hole for the cross- 
bar is to draw diagonals from the four points of inter- 
section and locate it at their intersection. 

14. Boring the holes for the crossbar. — In boring 
these holes, use an expansion bit and set it at i^" ; 
bore until the 
spur comes 
through, then re- 
verse and finish 
from the oppo- 
site side. In this 



way you msure 
a clean-cut hole. 
15. Trimming 
the ends of the 
crossbar. — The 
ends of the hick- 
ory crossbar 



should be 
rounded off for 
a distance of 
about 3'' from 
each end. (Fig. 
32.) If the bar 
is considerably 
too large, it will 
be necessary to use the drawknife and spokeshave, but 
if only a little is to be removed, the spokeshave only 
need be used. First, with the compass set at j'', locate 
the center of the end by the eye, and lay out the circles 
I J'' in diameter. Trim off the ends with the draw- 
knife, and finish with the spokeshave. 




Fig. 31. — Trimming Ends of Crossbar. 



26 



WOODWORKING 



i6. 





Wedging the ends of the crossbar. — Saw 

slits in the end of the crossbar 
to a depth of about 2^', as in 
Fig. 32, and make two wedges 
also of hickory similar to that 
shown in Fig. 32. Drive the 
crossbar into the hole and wedge. 
Repeat for the other end and saw 
off the projections flush with the 
surface of the legs. 

17. Laying out the braces. — 
Lay the two cross braces in place 
on the legs of the sawbuck, as 
in the drawing, and set the bevel 
square for the halved joint c, Fig. 
29, following the directions given 
in Operations 9, 10, 11, 12. The 
6'' brace on the underside of 
32. —Wedging Ends the legs Opposite is fastened on 
OF Crossbar. with screws as are the others. 



QUESTIONS 

1. In laying out the angles at the ends of the legs, wh^ are the 
dimensions 9" and 14!" used ? 

2. In laying out the angles 30 and 60 degrees with the carpenter's 
square, where will you hold the beam in each case ? 

3. In laying out the halved joints for the legs and the cross 
braces, do you lay them out on the same or opposite sides of the 
members, and why ? 

4. In boring the holes for the screws, why do you select bits of 
different sizes for the two pieces ? 

5. In boring the holes for the crossbar, why do you use an ex- 
pansion bit instead of an auger bit ? 



LESSON IV 

FOLDING SAWBUCK 

Stock 

4 pes. maple or birch x" X 3'' X 36'' 14 screws 2'', No. 10, 
2 pes. maple or birch z" x \" X 25'' F. H. B. 

I pc. maple or birch \" x 2" X 22'' 
I pc. round hickory z" x 22'' 
I pc. round hickory 2" X 18" 

Tools 
Same as in Lesson IIL 

Operations 

1. Laying out. 

2. Surfacing one side. 

3. Planing one edge. 

4. Laying out length, width, thickness. 

5. Planing to thickness. 

6. Sawing ends square. 

7. Planing to width. 

8. Laying out holes for crossbars. 

9. Boring holes for crossbars. 

10. Trimming ends of crossbars. 

11. Wedging the legs to the crossbars. 

12. Laying out braces. 

13. Sawing braces. 

14. Chiseling braces. 

15. Fastening braces. 

16. Attaching rope to cross pieces. 

27 



28 



WOODWORKING 



Follow the directions given in Lesson I for Opera- 
tions 1-7. 





Fig. 3s. — Working Drawing of Folding Sawbuck. 

8. In laying out the holes for the crossbars, measure 
up from one end of each leg 20'' for the upper crossbar, 
and for the lower crossbar measure up 2" from the lower 
end of each of the inner legs. Square across at these 
points and find the middle of each line. With the com- 
pass, describe i^^' circles at these points. 

9. In boring the holes for the crossbars, follow the 
directions and remember the precautions given in the 
preceding lesson. 

10. In trimming the ends of the lower crossbar, 
follow the directions given in the previous lesson ; but 
in trimming the ends of the middle crossbar, draw 
a line around the bar 4'' from each end; lay out ij'' 
circles at each end with the compass, and saw along 
the Hne to a depth of about j' clear around the bar. 

Trim down to the circle at the end as in the previous 



FOLDING SAWBUCK 



29 



lesson and with a chisel 

trim up to the saw kerf, 

making a shoulder at 

this point. (See Fig. 

35.) In this lesson more 

care must be taken in 

trimming the ends, for 

they must be perfectly 

cyHndrical and smooth. 

It will be necessary to 

use sandpaper in 

smoothing up the work. Hold the piece as shown in 

Fig. 34. The two outer legs are to be wedged in place 

as described in Lesson III. The two inner legs are 

to lit snug against the outer legs and inside against the 

shoulders cut in the upper crossbar. They must be free 

to rotate on the crossbar, and so it will be well to sand- 




FiG. 34. — Sandpapering End of Crossbar. 




Fig. 35. — Trimming End of Crossbar. 



30 



WOODWORKING 



paper that part of the ends a trifle smaller than the 
outer 2" . 

11. In wedging the legs to the crossbars, begin with 
the inner pair, place them on the upper bar up against 
the shoulders ; then fit the lower bar in place in the holes 
bored 2" from the lower end. Wedge this lower bar 
in place as described in the preceding lesson, and saw 
off the projecting ends close to the legs. 

Place the other pair of legs on the upper crossbar 
snug up against the inner pair of legs, and wedge in 
place. 

12, 13, 14, 15. In laying out the braces, in sawing, 
chiseling, and fastening to the legs, follow the directions 
given previously with the exception that the braces 
are attached to the legs in diflr'erent places, as shown in 

Fig- 33- 

16. Attach a small rope to the lower brace and bar 
of the legs to keep them from spreading too far. If 
the legs are not parallel and the braces are not square, 
the sawbuck will not fold together or stand straight. 
If the ends of the upper crossbar are not cylindrical 
and smooth, the legs will not fold easily. 



LESSON V 

PORCH CHAIR 

Stock 

2 pes. oak, maple, or birch i" X 2'' X 50" 
2 pes. oak, maple, or birch i" X 2" X 45'' 
2 pes. oak, maple, or birch i'' X 2" X 23" 
2 pes. oak, maple, or birch |'' X 2'' X 19" 
2 pes. oak, maple, or birch f' X 2" X 12'' 
2 pes. oak, maple, or birch f' X 2" X n'' 
I pc. oak, maple, or birch i'' X 6" X 28'' 

1 strip canvas 2' X 5°'' 
6 carriage bolts i" X 2^'' 

2 carriage bolts i" X 3f'' 
8 washers J'' 

4 screws i'\ No. 6 
Large tacks 

Tools 

Try-square Saw Brace and bit 

Bevel Plane Chisel 

Marking gauge Sandpaper 

Operations 

1. Planing strips to size and sawing to length. 

2. Laying out and boring holes. 

3. Laying out and chamfering ends. 

4. Making rounds. 

5. Shellacking and sandpapering. 

6. Assembling. 



3^ 



WOODWORKING 






^/ 



Fig. 36. — Details for Porch Chair. 
(Two pieces of each dimension.) 

Permission of American Carpenter and Builder. 



.2^ 



T" 



T 



1 

> 


.0 




"0 




u 







^L 


L=J 



■7^1 



1- 



C- 






[^ 



i w 



k 



I. Planing all strips to size and sawing to length. — 
All strips are to be planed square and smooth. After 
squaring, strips A, B, C, and D are \" thick and 2" 
wide, with the corners slightly rounded (Fig. 36). 

Pieces E and F are f thick and 2" wide. Cutting 



PORCH CHAIR 33 

off two or three shavings from the corners prevents the 
possibiHty of shvers. 

When planed to size, saw to the following lengths : 

A, 49i;; 

B, 442'' 

C, zz" 
A 181" 

F, loi" 

2. Laying out and boring holes. — On each of pieces 
A lay out at one end a hole i" in diameter, the centers 
of which are i\" from the end. At the other end lay 
out a similar hole i\" from the end. i8|'' from the first 
end la}^ out a \" hole, and i^^" from the other end lay 
out a \" hole. 

On each of pieces B lay out at both ends i" holes, 
i\" from the ends. 12'' from one end lay out a \" hole. 
7I'' from the other end lay out a i'' hole with the center 
on one edge. 3f from this hole lay out a similar hole, 
and continue until 4 such holes have been laid out on 
this edge. 

On each of pieces C lay out 2. i" hole i\" from one 
end, and a Y' hole the same distance from the other end. 
7f'^ from this end lay out a J^' hole. 

On each of pieces D lay out a \" hole i\" from one 
end and 5'' from the other end lay out a \" hole. . 

On pieces E lay out \" holes if from each end. 

On pieces F lay out one hole i\" from one end, and 
another hole ^" from the other end. These should be 
of the size to admit No. 6 screws. 

In boring the half holes on pieces B, place the two 



34 



WOODWORKING 



pieces together edgewise in the vise and bore with the 
screw of the bit in the crack between the pieces. To 
prevent spHtting, all pieces should be held in the vise 
when boring the i" holes. 

3. Laying out and chamfering the ends. — Lay out 
\'^ chamfers on both ends of pieces A, B, and C, and on 
one end of pieces D ; on the other end of pieces D lay 
out a bevel 3'' from the end down to i'' at the end. 

To chamfer, cut off 
the angles made 
where two surfaces 
meet. This cut is 
usually made at an 
angle of 45°. On 
pieces E lay out f " 
bevels on the edges 
only of the two ends. 
These bevels will be 
at a 45-degree angle 
made with the bevel. 
On pieces F lay out 
45-degree bevels of 
h'^ on the edges only 

Fig. 37. — Porch Chair Assembled. % i i 

of the two ends. 
Chisel the I'' chamfers. Saw, and chisel or plane the 
bevels larger than Y'. 

4. Making rounds. — Make the five rounds from 
the board whose dimensions are i'^ X 6'' X 28'', accord- 
ing to the directions given in the lesson on the Combina- 
tion Ladder. 

5. Shellacking and sandpapering. — Shellac over all 
pieces, sandpaper, and shellac again. 




PORCH CHAIR 35 

6. Assembling the pieces. — (i) Fit and glue the 
rounds into A and B (Fig. 37). The distance between 
pieces A when fastened together should be 2' 3'', inside 
measurements. The distance between pieces B should 
be 2' ^" , outside measurements, as this pair must fit 
inside the first pair. (2) Fasten pieces A, B, and E 
together with the carriage bolts ^\" long, heads outside. 
(3) Fit round to pieces C so that they are 2' ^" apart, 
inside measurements. (4) Fasten the other ends of 
pieces C to A with carriage bolts 2^" long. (5) Fasten 
pieces D to pieces C with carriage bolts 2\" long. 
(6) Fasten pieces E to pieces D with carriage bolts 2^" 
long. (7) Fasten pieces F to pieces D with screws. 
(8) Fasten the canvas to the upper round of pieces A 
and B with heavy tacks, doubling under the canvas 
while tacking. 



LESSON VI 

CLOTHES RACK 
Stock 

1 pc. oak lY' X li'^ X 60'' 16 screws i'', No. 6 R. H. Bl. 

2 pes. oak i'' X 12'' X 12'' 16 screws f ', No. 6 R. H. Bl. 
16 pes. poplar f X i^ X 24'' 32 washers for screws 

4 pes. poplar i" X iF' X 60'' 8 screws 2'', No. 8 R. H. Bl. 
(R. H. Bl. means round head, blue.) 

Tools 

Rule Plane Turning saw 

Try-square Brace and bit Cabinet file 

Saw Screwdriver Sandpaper 

Operations 

1. Laying out and planing center post, uprights, and bars. 

2. Boring holes for screws. 

3. Laying out and cutting braces. 

4. Shellacking. 

5. Assembling. 

I. Laying out and planing center post, uprights, and 
bars. — The center post should be of some hard wood, 
as oak, and should be planed lY^ square and 60'' long; 
square up both ends with the block plane. The four 

36 



CLOTHES RACK 



37 



uprights should be of some soft wood, preferably poplar, 
but basswood will do (Fig. 38). 

Plane up to size and square the ends. The bars are to 
be f X li'' X 24", of the same wood as the uprights, 



/ 


r- ■■ , 






'0 


D 






> 


, 






,1 








1 


-? 






1 








) 


^ 






1 4' 






p 


u 




'i 






1 
1 




_jv~. 






J ^ ^' 










) 








Oeta./ a 


' A 





Fig. 38. — Working Drawings of Clothes Rack. 

and planed square. Take pains to have all the bars of 
the same length. 

2. Boring holes for screws. — Lay out the holes f " 
from each end of the 16 bars; bore the holes the size 
of the screws. Locate the screw holes on the center 
post and uprights, by placing the bars in position with 
the ends flush with the edges of the center post and up- 
rights, then drive the screws just hard enough to make 
a mark on these pieces. 

Repeat these operations for all four bars on one up- 

FARM SHOP WORK — 4 



38 WOODWORKING 

right and one side of the center post. Then placing 
the other three uprights beside the first one, square 
across them from each screw mark. 

Square around the other three sides of the center post 
from the screw marks on the first side. Find the middle 
of all lines thus squared on the center post and uprights, 
and bore the holes a trifle smaller than the screws. The 
holes in the uprights should be nearly through; those 
on the center post should be about J'' deep. 

3. Laying out and cutting braces. — The four braces 
can be cut from two pieces of oak, each i'' X 12'' X \i" . 
Lay off a line from one corner to the opposite corner, 
and from the center draw a circle 8'' in diameter. 

Saw along the line from corner to corner, and then 
saw out the curves with a turning saw. Smooth the 
edges down with a cabinet file and sandpaper. Bore 
holes for the screws in the braces and center post. 

4. Shellacking. — Shellac each piece thoroughly. 
Sandpaper down smooth with No. i sandpaper, and 
cover with another coat of shellac made thinner than 
the first coat by the addition of some alcohol in about 
the proportion of one tablespoonful to a teacup of 
shellac. It is advisable to fasten the braces to the up- 
right with screws before shellacking, and then remove 
them for sandpapering. This avoids covering the 
joints with shellac, which would prevent the glue from 
holding. 

5. Assembling. — Assemble the rack by first fasten- 
ing the braces to the center post with glue and screws ; 
then fasten the bars to the center post with screws and 
washers ; finally, fasten the bars to the uprights with 
screws and washers. 



LESSON VII 

CLOTHES TREE 
Stock 

1 pc. oak 2i" X 2¥' X 5' 2'' 

2 pes. oak r X I's" X i'4'' 
Glue, stain, filler, varnish, sandpaper 

Tools 

Rule Plane Chisel 

Try-square Turning saw Spokeshave 

Saw Brace and bit 

Operations 

1. Laying out and planing upright. 

2. Cutting mortises and boring dowel holes. 

3. Laying out, planing, and sawing legs. 

4. Laying out, planing, and sawing hooks. 

5. Staining, filling, and varnishing. 

6. Assembling. 

1. Laying out and planing upright. — The upright 
is a square piece tapering from 2 J'' at one end to if at 
the other. Plane 2J'' square from end to end ; then at 
one end lay off a square i^'' on a side, and plane down 
to this square from the other end. The smaller end is 
beveled, as shown in Fig. 39. 

2. Cutting mortises and boring dowel holes. — Mor- 

39 



40 



WOODWORKING 



■^.^s^- 



tises are holes cut in wood to receive the tenons in a 

mortise and tenon joint. The tenon is the tongue of 

wood that fits into the mortise. 

Dowel holes are holes bored in wood to receive the 

dowel pins in a doweled joint. The dowel pins are 

round pins of hardwood made 
to fit the dowel holes, and cor- 
respond to the tenons of a mor- 
tise and tenon joint. The first 
pair of mortises is cut lo" from 
the top. By the section draw- 
ing (Fig. 40) you can see that 
the mortises are laid off center; 
that is, one mortise f wide is 
f from one edge and f from 
the other edge. The mortise 
on the opposite side is laid off 
according to the same dimen- 
sions, but they are taken from 
opposite sides, so that when the 
tenons are introduced they will 
lap. The reason for lapping 
the tenons is to allow longer and 
i-^z: — J — *' consequently stronger tenons to 

Fig. 39. — Working Drawing of be USed ; then, tOO, in this Case 

Clothes Tree. ^^^ teuous are glucd in place 

and nailed together with brads, as shown in the section 
on ah, Fig, 40. 

The second pair of hooks is placed i^\" from the top. 
Cut the mortises in the same way as the first two, but 
on the other two sides, so there will be one hook on each 
of the four sides. 





CLOTHES TREE 



41 



; bore 
¥' bit 




jecf/on on a.b. 
Fig. 40. — Hooks of Clothes Tree. 



Two dowel holes are placed in each of the four sides 

of the post ; the lower set of dowel holes is placed 3'' 

from the lower end 

of the upright 

them with a ^ 

and \" deep. The 

second set of holes 

is c)" from the lower 

end and bored the 

same depth. 

3. Laying out, 

planing, and sawing 

legs. — The dotted 

lines of Fig. 41 show 

how two legs may 

be laid out on one piece 15'' X 16" with the least waste 

of lumber. The curves are not arcs of circles and so 

must be laid out free hand, after locating the points 

as indicated in Fig. 41. 

In sawing the legs, use the turn- 
ing saw or keyhole saw, and finish 
with the spokeshave and sandpaper. 
4. Laying out, planing, and saw- 
ing hooks. — The hooks can be cut 
from the two corners left on each 
board after laying out the legs. 
Be careful that the grain of the 

Fig. 41. — Method or Cut- , , . r u U 1 ^ 

TING OUT Legs of Clothes WOOd runs lengthwise Ot the tlOOkS. 

'^^^^- Fig. 40 shows how the hooks are to 

be laid out. Two hooks are to be just Hke those in the 
drawing, and the other two are to be the same, except 
that the tenons will be on opposite surfaces. Be careful 




42 



WOODWORKING 



^ 



not to make a mistake in this, or the work will be 
spoiled. Cut the tenons before the rest of the outline, 
and chamfer the ends after tapering from \" to %'\ 

5. Staining, filling, and varnishing. — It will be easier 
to do good work in finishing this piece, if it can be done 
before assembling ; but if any of the 
finishing materials get into the mortises 
or dowel holes, or on the wood where 
the shoulders are to be glued, the glue 
will not stick. The pupil may do as 
he pleases about finishing before or 
after assembling. If done before, then 
fit all parts together and stain; then 
take the pieces apart, and wipe off all 
the stain that can be removed with a 
cloth. 

Assemble the parts again and fill. — 
Filling consists of rubbing into the 
pores of the wood a pasty substance 
called wood filler, to make a level 
smooth surface which may be polished. 
Take apart and wipe off all surplus 
filler. Allow to dry for twenty-four 
hours, and sandpaper with No. i sand- 
paper until smooth ; be careful not to 
remove any stain in this operation. If you should 
sandpaper off some of the stain, go over the spots 
again with a rag moistened with the stain. Assemble 
the tree and cover with a coat of shellac ; when this 
dries, which will be in about twelve hours, sandpaper 
smooth with No. i sandpaper moistened with oil to 
prevent gumming and sticking. Steel wool can be used 




Fig. 42. — Clothes 
Tree Assembled. 



CLOTHES TREE 43 

in this work to advantage, as it does not gum up or 
scratch. The final coat of shellac or varnish should 
be given after the clothes tree is assembled and glued. 
6. Assembling. — In assembling the various parts 
and gluing them in place, it will be necessary to glue 
them on in pairs, using blocks of wood shaped so that 
you can get the pressure where you want it when clamp- 
ing. The pressure must come along the line ah, Fig. 
39, in the hooks so as to force the tenons in the mor- 
tises square, and the shoulders flush with the upright. 
The pressure on the legs must be such that the dowels 
will be forced in place with equal pressure, and the edges 
flush with the surface of the upright. Here is a chance 
for the pupil to exercise some ingenuity in cutting out 
the blocks. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are the hooks set in pairs at different heights on the up- 
right .? 

2. Why are the tenons lapped ? 

3. Why are not the legs tenoned ? 

4. Why is the upright tapered ? 

5. Why is it better to square up the upright before tapering it .? 

6. Why are the hooks tapered ? 



LESSON VIII 



SEED-TESTING BOX 



A seed-testing box is used for the purpose of testing 
seed corn before planting. The bottom of the box is 
covered about 2" deep with wet sand. Over this is laid 

a white cloth, also wet, on 
which have been drawn 
with a soft lead pencil, 
lines three inches apart, 
crossing each other at 
right angles. Each square 
is numbered, and six ker- 
nels of corn aretaken from 
an ear and placed in a 
square, there being as 
many ears tested at once 
as there are squares on 
the cloth. The ear from 
which the kernels have 
been placed on square 
No. I is hung on a nail driven into a board or rack, 
and numbered i, so that at any time the kernels can 
be identified with the ears from which they were 
taken. 

Over the kernels is placed another wet cloth, and the 
seeds are allowed to germinate. 

44 




Fig. 43. — Working Drawing of Seed- 
Testing Box. 



SEED-TESTIN(i BOX 45 

Stock 
4 pes. white pine i" x 3Y' X 25'' Screws 2'', No. 8 F. H. B. 
4 pes. white pine i'' x 6|'' X 25'' 

Tools 
Rule Saw Brace, bit, and countersink 

Try-square Plane Screwdriver 

Marking gauge Chisel Hammer 

Operations 

1. Laying out. 

2. Surfacing one side, 

3. Planing one edge. 

4. Squaring one end. 

5. Laying out length, width, thickness. 

6. Planing to thickness. 

7. Sawing to length. 

8. Planing to length. 

9. Sawing to width. 

10. Planing to width. 

11. Laying out halved joint. 

12. Cutting halved joint. 

13. Laying out screw holes. 

14. Boring screw holes. 

15. Assembling. 

16. Trimming. 

i-io. Operations i-io are similar to those given in 
Lesson L 

II. Laying out the halved joints. — In laying out 
the halved joints at the corners, set the marking gauge 
at I" and gauge both ends of the four pieces, gauging from 
the tv7o edges as at ^, b, <:, d (Fig. 44), then gauge across 
the ends as at ^,/, g, being careful that both ends of each 



46 



WOODWORKING 



piece are gauged alike and that the pieces are gauged in 
pairs. Gauge across the ends as well as on both sur- 
faces. The material to be removed is marked x. 

12. Cutting halved joint. — In cutting the halved 
joint it is best to saw down the gauge lines, bearing in 
mind the rule that the saw kerf must be in the material 





Fig. 44. — Halved Joints of Seed-Testing Box, 

to be removed, which means in this case to saw along a, 
but on the x side of the hne. 

Also saw along ^, but on the x side ; then along c, d,f, 
gy on the x side of these lines. In cutting out the 
block X, it will be necessary to bore two holes, after 
sawing a and h, through the block so that the bit just 
touches the hne e, and then chisel along the hne e from 
both sides towards the center. (See Fig. 45.) 

If the joints have been carefully cut, the tongues, or 
tenons, will fit tight into the mortises. If they do not 
fit, use the chisel in trimming down whichever piece is 
too large. 



SEED-TESTING BOX 



47 



13. In laying out the 
screw holes, locate them 
by diagonals drawn from 
the four corners of the pro- 
jecting tongues. 

Lay out the holes for 
the bottom boards about 
G" apart, but be sure that 
each board has at least 
two holes in each end. 

14. Bore the screw holes 
with a gimlet bit just the 
size of the screws ; it will 

be unnecessary to bore into the second piece, as the 
screws will hold better if forced into the soft wood with- 
out previous boring. 




Fig. 45. 



Method of Cutting 
Mortise, 




Fig. 46. — Seed-Testing Box Assembled. 

15. In assembling, fit the four corners together tight, 
start the screws with the hammer, and finish with the 
screwdriver. 

If the shoulders of the joints have been cut square 



48 WOODWORKING 

with the surfaces, the corners will be square when as- 
sembled. 

After the corners have been fastened, lay on the bot- 
tom board with ends and edge flush with the sides of the 
box, and fasten with screws ; continue this operation 
until the bottom is covered. 

1 6. Trimming. — It will be necessary to do a little 
trimming with the plane after the box is assembled, to 
remove any projecting edges or tenons. Be careful in 
trimming the ends of the tenons, always to plane towards 
the box and never away from it, or you will sphnter it. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why should the seed be tested before planting? 

2. Why do you select kernels from different parts of the ear ? 

3. Why should the sand and cloths be wet? 

4. Why is it necessary to cut the shoulders of the joints square ? 

5. How does the method of fastening this joint make it one of 
the strongest ? 

6. Why is it easier to cut the mortise after boring than without 
boring ? 

7. Why is it unnecessary to bore holes in both pieces of wood in 
assembling these joints ? 



LESSON IX 

SHEEP-FEEDING TROUGH 

Stock 

13 board feet white pine |'' thick, S2s 
i lb. 8d nails 

2 bolts 2^' X f '' and washers 
(s2s means ''surface two sides," or planed on the two sur- 
faces.) 

Tools 

Carpenter's square Saw Hammer 

Try-square Plane Chisel 

Gauge Brace and bit 

Operations 

1. Laying off width and length of bottom, sides, and ends. 

2. Sawing and planing. 

3. Nailing in place. 

4. Laying off width and length of supports. 

5. Laying out mortises. 

6. Laying out bases. 

7. Sawing and planing to size. 

8. Cutting mortises. 

9. Nailing bases to uprights. 

10. Laying off width and length of brace. 

11. Laying out tenons. 

12. Cutting tenons. 

13. Laying off wedges to size. 

49 



so 



WOODWORKING 



14. Cutting to size. 

15. Trimming holes for wedges. 

16. Assembling. 

■1&2 - 










-r^-* 



I. Laying off width 
and length. — Lay off 
the width of the bot- 



FiG. 47. — Working Drawing of Sheep- 
feeding Trough, 



torn 1 1 J'' and length 
3' 9I". Lay off the 
sides 6'' wide and 3' 
11" long. Lay out the 
ends 8'' wide and 13" 
long; 2" from one edge 
of the ends, gauge a 
line from end to end ; 
find the middle of the 
length and on the same 
edge lay off the middle 
line; if on each side 
mark <2, a, and draw 
lines to h, h on the 
ends (Fig. 47). 

2. Sawing and plan- 
ing. — Saw out the mem- 
bers just outside the 
lines, leaving enough ma- 
terial to plane the edges 
smooth and straight, 
and yet leave them full 
size. 

3. Nailing in place. — 
Nail the two ends to 



SHEEP-FEEDING TROUGH 51 

the bottom first, then nail the sides to the bottom 
and ends, 

4. Laying off supports. — Lay off the supports, 1" 
wide and 24'' long. 

5. Laying out mortises. — Lay out the mortises in 
the supports as follows : 'j" from the lower ends 
square a line across ; 2\" from this line square an- 
other line across ; but instead of measuring the 
2\" from the first line, a better way is to measure 
up from the lower end ^\" and square across. The 
reason for preferring this method in measuring is that 
the liability of mistakes is reduced because mistakes 
are seldom repeated. 

Find the middle of the supports by measuring \\" 
from each edge. As the brace is \" thick, you should 
make the mortise the same thickness ; in laying it out, 
measure one half of this thickness on each side of the 
middle line ; therefore measure -^q" on each side of 
the middle line and with the marking gauge scribe each 
side of the mortise. (To scribe means to mark with a 
knife or other sharp instrument.) 

In gauging the first line, set it at \^^" , but in gauging 
the second line, do not gauge the same distance from the 
other edge. This would be all right if the supports were 
exactly the right width, but so seldom are all dimen- 
sions exact, that a better way is to gauge both sides of 
the mortise from one edge of the support ; so for the 
second fine, set the gauge at \\%" and gauge from the 
same edge as before. Lay out the mortise on both sur- 
faces. 

6. Laying out bases. — Lay out the bases of the sup- 
ports &' in width ; rip along this fine and plane. Square 



52 WOODWORKING 

one end and lay off 15'' for the length, square across and 
lay off the length of the second base. Gauge a line i" 
from one edge ; find the middle of the length of each 
base and from this middle line measure off \\" on each 
side, and line to the ^" mark on the ends, just as in lay- 
ing off the ends of the box. 

7. Saw and plane the members to line. 

8. Cut the mortise by boring %" holes inside the lines ; 
chisel from both sides, commencing with the ends, then 
trim down the sides. Be sure the edges of the mortise 
are square with the surfaces, and chisel from both sides 
towards the center. In testing the sides, or cheeks, 
of a mortise, use the try-square if it is possible to get 
the blade in the mortise ; if not, lay the blade of a nar- 
row chisel against the cheek of the mortise and test 
with a try-square. 

9. Nail the bases to the uprights by starting the nails 
in the bases and locate them where they belong on the 
uprights ; then drive one nail through, with the try- 
square or carpenter's square against the edge of the up- 
right ; square the bottom of the base with this and 
drive a second nail through, then the others, and clinch 
on the inside. This insures the bases being square 
with the supports. Be sure to stagger the nails. 

10. Lay off the brace ^' in width and 55^'' in length, 
saw, and plane. 

11. Lay off the tenons by measuring in from each end 
2\" and square around on all four sides ; then find the 
middle of the width, and from this line measure on each 
side \^' and gauge from the ends to the ^\" fine. In 
this case set the gauge at \" for the first line and at 3 J^' 
for the second line. Lay out the holes in the tenons 



SHEEP-FEEDING TROUGH 



53 



before cutting the tenons. The hne squared across 
2I" from the end is called the shoulder ; f from this 
shoulder, square a line across, and another, if from the 
shoulder. Measure 



^ 



□5 



tJU 



ra-1 




f on each side of 
the middle Hne, and 
gauge lines between 
the two cross lines 
just drawn, as in Fig. 
48. Lay out on both 
surfaces. 

12. Cuttin g the 
tenons. — ^ First, bore 
three Y' holes inside 'hq 
the lines marking the | 
holes, and chisel out 

r 1 1 • J o^i Fig. 48. — Mortise and Tenon Joint. 

rrom both Sides. 1 he 

hole is cut first, as the piece will not be so likely to split 
as it would be if the tenons were cut first. Second, 
saw from the edges along the shoulder from a to by 
then rip from c to ^ ; smooth 
up the edges with the chisel ; 
gauge y from the edges of the 
ends, and chamfer with the 
plane (Fig. 49). 

13. The wedges are laid off 
2J'' long and f thick and taper- 
ing from lY^ to l'\ Both ends 
are chamfered on three sides, as shown in the drawing. 

14. Saw and plane on four sides. 

15. Trimming holes for wedges. — Fit the tenon of the 
brace into the mortise of the upright support and drive 

FARM SHOP WORK 5 




Fig, 49. — Cutting the 
Tenon. 



54 



WOODWORKING 



the wedge into place in the hole. The taper of the 
wedge will not allow it to fit into the hole because the 




Fig. 50. — Method of Trimming Hole for Wedge. 



sides of the hole are square and one edge of the wedge 
tapers. The wedge binds on the side next the larger 
end of the wedge and there 
is a crack on the side oppo- 
site. With a pair of divid- 
ers, measure the width of 
the crack a^ Fig. 50, then 
measure the same distance h ; 
chisel down from this line in- 
side, making a taper inside 
that will fit the taper of the 
wedge. If the hole is not 
slanted this way, the wedge 
will not fit tight and will not hold the supports firmly 
against the shoulder of the brace. 




Fig. 51. — Sheep Feed Box 
Assembled. 



SHEEP-FEEDING TROUGH 55 

16. Assembling. — Locate the holes for the bolts by 
measuring down from the top of the supports ^" along 
the middle line ; bore a \" hole. 

Also \" down from the top of the ends of the box along 
the center line, bore a \" hole. Connect the supports 
by the brace which is mortised in and held in place with 
the wedges. Place the bolts in place, supporting the 
box, and screw on nut. Carriage bolts are used here 
because they have a square shank near the head, which, 
when driven into the wood, holds the bolt while the nut 
is being screwed on. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is the bottom fitted inside the sides and ends ? 

2. Why is the cross piece mortised into the uprights ? 

3. What advantage has a swinging trough over a fixed one.? 

4. How do you lay out a mortise for a wedge ? 



LESSON X 



CHICKEN FEED BOX 



Stock 






White pine 22 board feet, |" 


thick, S2S. 


I lb. 8d nails. 






I pair hinges z" butts. 






Tools 






Carpenter's square Plane 




Screwdriver 


Bevel Hammer 




Chisel 


Saw Gauge 




Try-square 



Operations 

1. Laying out two ends, three partitions, back, bottom, top, 

front, trough. 

2. Making cleats. 

3. Sawing and planing members. 

4. Assembling. 

I. The laying out of this exercise Is the most impor- 
tant and difficult part of the operations. Care must 

be taken to use 
no more lumber 
than is neces- 
sary. 

For the two 
ends you need 

Fig. 52. — Ends of Chicken Feed Box. a board \0^' 

56 




CHICKEN FEED BOX 57 

wide and 3' \" long. Beginning at a. Fig. 52, see if the 
end is square with the edges ; if not, square it up. From 
a measure 3f along one edge ; square across about one 
half the width of the board ; measure on this line i^\" to 
h. From a measure along the edge 15'' to <:, scribe a 
line from b to c. From c measure j" to d and square 
across the board to e. Scribe a line from c to e. From 
e measure 15" to/ and square across the board. Meas- 
ure back from / 3!'^ to g and scribe a line about half- 
way across the board. From g measure on this line 4I" 
to h and scribe a Hne from h to e. 

For the three partitions you need a board 4' 8'' long 
and loj'' wide. Square up the end at k, Fig. 53, and 

measureon this line 

S"toL Along the ^ ^^^^^^ "^ 

edge measure 14'' 

to m. Scribe a line 

from /torn. Square 

across the board to ^^ ^ ^ 17 td 

Fig. 53. — Partitions of Chicken Feed Box. 

n and from this 

point measure y" to 0. Scribe a line from m to 0. 
Measure from i^" to r and square across to q. On 
this line measure off 5'' r to p and scribe a line from 
to p. In the same way lay out the third partition from 
the remainder of the board. 

You need for the back enough boards 24'' long to 
make a width of 22|''. Square across one end of each 
board and accurately measure from these ends 24'' 
and square across these ends. One edge of the top 
board is to be beveled. Scribe a line ^" down from the 
edge on one side with the marking gauge and then bevel. 

You need for the bottom enough boards 24'' long to 



58 



WOODWORKING 



make a width of 12''. Lay out by the same method 
that was used for the back, but do not bevel. 

For the top you need enough boards 2\" long to make 
a width of i^V - Lay out in the same way as the back 
and bottom are laid out, except that two bevels are to 
be laid out, each of \" , on opposite surfaces of the top. 

For the front you need enough boards 24'' long to 




I I I M j j j 



Fig. 54. — Working Drawing of Chicken Feed Box. 

make a width of 15'^ Lay out in the same way, ex- 
cept that there are two notches cut on the lower edge, 
each 2" deep and Y' wide. The top edge is also beveled 
\" down from the edge. 

The front of the trough consists of a board 24'' long 
and 3J'' wide. Square up one end, measure 24'', and 
square up the other end. 

2. Making cleats. — The top is held together by two 
cleats 2" wide and ()" long. The thickness is the same 



CHICKEN FEED BOX 59 

as the rest of the lumber. Gauge down Y' on the sur- 
face and edges, and plane down to these hues for the 
bevel, planing the edges first and the ends afterwards. 
3. Saw outside all lines and leave the planing of out- 
side edges until the box is assembled. Plane the edges 
square except where bevels are required. 




Fig. 55. — Chicken Feed Box Assembled. 

4. Assembling. — First, locate the three partitions 
by measuring on the back and squaring lines across at 
each point on both surfaces of the back. The inside line 
serves to locate the partitions and the outside Hne serves 



6o WOODWORKING 

to locate the nails which are to be driven in from the 
back into the partitions. Second^ nail on the two ends in 
the same way. Thirds nail the bottom to the two ends. 
Fourth, square lines across the front similar to the lines 
on the back and for the same purpose, and nail the 
front in place in the same way. Fifth, nail on the front 
strip of the trough, nailing it to the two ends and from 
the bottom into the front strip. Sixth, the boards of 
the top are held together by two cleats nailed on the 
underside 2" from each end, the cleats being g" long 
and one end placed 2" from the back edge of the top. 
These nails will go through the top and can be clinched. 
Seventh, using screws, fasten the top on the back with 
two hinges placed 2'^ from the ends. Be sure to place 
the middle of the hinges on the crack between the top 
and back. Trim all projecting edges with the plane. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is the top made to slant down ? 

2. Why is the front made slanting instead of perpendicular ? 

3. Why does the top project over the trough ? 

4. Why does the front project into the trough ? 



LESSON XI 

TRAP NEST 

Stock 

12 board feet white pine f by ^ 
I pair brass hinges z" X \" 



4 

3 sq. ft. chicken wire 
Brads 

Tools 

Carpenter's square Rule Hammer Chisel 

Try-square Saw Plane 

Operations 

1. Laying out and cutting bottom, sides, and end. 

2. Laying out and cutting partition and nail in place. 

3. Laying out and cutting cross piece. 

4. Laying out and cutting blocks. 

5. Laying out and cutting door, attaching strips. 

6. Laying out and cutting brace. 

7. Laying out and cutting strip. 

8. Laying out and making frame for top. 

9. Assembling. 

I. Lay out the bottom 24" long by 1 5 J" wide, the two 
sides 24'' long by \\%" wide, and the end \^\" long by 
lof" wide. These four pieces are sawed square on the 

61 






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62 



TRAP NEST 



63 



/Ji " 



v^-- 



ends, and planed square on the edges, but the surfaces 
are left as they come from the mill. 

2. Lay out the partition d is\" long by 4^ wide. 
Fit this piece across the bottom ii'^ from the back, 
and nail in place on the bottom before the nest is assem- 
bled. /^. 

3. Lay out the ^ ~' ^ 
crosspiece e i^\" 
long and 2" wide. 
Bevel the upper 
edge at an angle 
of 45 degrees. In 
laying out this 
bevel, either set 
the bevel at 45 
degrees and mark 
the two ends, and 
then from the ends 
of these lines 
scribe a line across one surface; or measure down 
from one edge a distance equal to the thickness of the 
piece and scribe across the surface. 



Fig. 57. 



k J- ^ 
■Front of Trap Nest. 



4. Lay out the block / 2\ 



X 



X 3'', and the block 



g h" X I" X 3''. Nail block g to the bottom of block/. 

5. Lay out the door 20'' long by 14J" wide. Across 
one end of the door, nail a strip a ^" X i" X 14^, 
flush with the edge, and underneath, in the middle of 
the width, nail another strip h J'' x f X 3''. Place 
this ^" back from the edge. 

6. Lay out the brace c Y' x I" X 9^" and bevel the 
ends so that they will fit in the corners made by the 
blocks h and g. This brace, the block g, and the strip 



64 



WOODWORKING 



h just laid out are the same thickness and width, and so 

can be laid out in one piece and afterwards cut to the 

u^ -T^^^ lengths required. 



7. Lay out the 



r-i 




i 




I- -oj ^..; 



IncoT 






strip I I" X 



i"x 



isi" 



24? 



Fig. 58. — Top of Trap Nest. 



long. Saw 
out and fit be- 
tween the sides 
flush with the top 
edges and the front 
edges. 

8. Lay out the 
frame of the top, 
which is not fas- 



tened to the nest, but simply rests on top so it can be 
removed when releasing the hen and removing the eggs. 

The frame is 2\" long and ij" wide, outside measure- 
ments ; the pieces are ^" thick and 2" wide, and are 
joined at the cor- 
ners by halved 
joints glued and 
nailed with 
brads. Nail on 
two strips, as 
shown in Fig. 58. 

9. A s s e m - 
bling. — First, 
nail the two sides 
on the bottom with 8d nails. Second, nail the end in be- 
tween the sides. Third, nail the strip i in front, between 
the sides, flush with the upper edges and front edges. 
Fourth, nail the strip e in place between the sides and to 




Fig. 59. — Trap Nest Assembled. 



TRAP NEST 65 

the bottom flush with the front edges, and with the bevel 
sloping down and in. Fifth, fasten the door to the strip 
e with brass hinges placed 2" from each end of the strip. 
The hinges can be screwed to the surface of the wood 
without letting in. {Letting in means to chisel a groove 
or recess to receive the hinges.) The top frame can be 
held in place by the two strips which are \" X \" and 
as long as the width of the nest, inside measurements. 
Nail block/ \" back from the front edge so that when 
the door drops down it will not hit the block g. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why should one wish to use a trap nest ? 

2. If the end h of the door were heavier than the end <2, how would 
you remedy it ? 

3. Why is the edge e beveled ? 

4. Of what use is the strip a ? 

5. Why is the wire netting on the top better than a board ? 



LESSON XII 

WAGON JACK 

Stock 

I pc. hardwood, oak, hickory, or maple 5'' x 2'' X 3' 

I pc. hardwood, oak, hickory, or maple 2'' x i'' X 3' 

I pc. hardwood, oak, hickory, or maple i'' X 1" X 12' 

I hinge, i bolt, two iron straps 





Tools 




Rule 


Saw 


Screwdriver 


Try-square 


Chisel 


Spokeshave 


Bevel 


Brace and bit 
Marking gauge 


Plane 



Operations 

1. Laying out, squaring, and planing pieces. 

2. Making iron straps. 

3. Assembling. 

I. Laying out, squaring, and planing. — Plane A, 
Fig. 60, 5'' wide, 2" thick, and 3' long. Set the gauge 
at 1" and gauge on both surfaces from one edge. &' 
from one end, square a line across the gauged line. 
\Y' from this line, square another line. Repeat this 
operation until 5 lines have been drawn. These 
lines locate points <2, h, c, d, and e. iV' from the first 
line a, square another line, and at the same distance 

66 




-i/r- 



67 



68 . WOODWORKING 

from lines h, r, and J, square lines across ; these lines 
locate points /, g, h, and i. Connect these points with 
dy b, c, d, e, and you will have the steps laid off. In 
sawing out this piece, begin at the upper end and rip 
down to a, then crosscut from /to a, saw from/ to h, and 
so on until you have cut down to e, then rip from the 
lower end to e. With the compass, lay out both ends 
in a semicircle, and cut them with a chisel, finishing 
with sandpaper. 

The steps and edges that have been sawed will have to 
be made as smooth as possible with the chisel. The 
block plane can be used with advantage on some of the 
longer edges. With a I" bit, bore a hole through the 
upper end, nearer the lower edge than the upper, so as 
to give the piece as much strength as possible. The 
support of the jack is made of three pieces ; two of them 
hinged together, and a handle fastened to the upper piece 
with screws. The handle projects over the end of the 
lower piece to prevent it from buckling or bending back 
and breaking the hinged joint. 

Lay out the handle i" thick, 2" wide, and 12'' long. 
y\" from one end square a line ah across one edge. Lay 
off a point c on the same end i^' from the edge ; connect 
this point with the line squared across the edge. From 
a, square a line across the side (Fig. 60). 

At the other end of the handle lay off a point i" from 
the edge d and gauge a line from this point to e in the 
line squared across the side. Saw from a to c and from 
d nearly to e. Saw from a down to the line de on a 
slant so that the curve may be cut out with a chisel. 
Draw a free-hand curve at e and chisel down as close to 
the line as possible. Finish with a cabinet file and 



WAGON JACK 69 

sandpaper. Round off the handle with a spokeshave 
and sandpaper. 

The hne ac is cut on a slant because the handle is 
thus thrown out farther from the edge of the support 
and so does not pinch the fingers. 

2. Making iron straps. — The iron straps are de- 
scribed under Blacksmithing. 




\J 



Fig. 61. — Wagon Jack Assembled. 



3. Assembling. — First, saw nearly through the sup- 
port \6" from one end with a fine saw. Second, fasten 
the hinge to the uncut edge of this support, taking 
pains to have the center of the hinge exactly over the 
line for the saw cut. Third, finish the saw cut down 
to the hinge. Fourth, fasten the iron straps in place 
on the upper end of the support. Fifth, fasten the 
handle in place with screws. Sixth, bolt the support 
to the leg of the jack. 

To operate the jack, place it under the axle of the 
wagon, lifting the support with the handle ; drop the 

FARM SHOP WORK — 6 



yo 



WOODWORKING 



support to the ground in such a way that the support 
is bent at the hinge, and press down on the handle until 
the support straightens out, and raises the axle. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is the hole bored in the top off center ? 

2. Why does the handle lap over the joint in closing ? 

3. Why is the lower end of the support left square ? 

4. Why saw nearly through the support before putting on the 
hinge ? 



LESSON XIII 



HAMMER HANDLE 



The hammer handle must be made from some wood 
that is both strong and elastic. Maple is strong, but 
not elastic enough ; birch is better than maple and is 
sometimes used for this purpose. Ironwood is tough 
enough, but is not elastic. Hickory makes an ideal 
wood for ax and hammer handles, and is the wood that 
should be selected if possible. The second growth 
hickory is the best. 



Rule 

Try-square 
Marking gauge 



Stock 
I pc. hickory i" X ij' X 13!' 

Tools 

Plane 

Saw 

Chisel 



Operations 



Shellac 



Spokeshave 
Sandpaper 
Cabinet file 



1. Laying out. 

2. Surfacing one side. 

3. Planing one edge. 

4. Squaring one end. 

5. Laying out length, width, thickness. 

6. Planing to thickness. 

7. Sawing to length. 

71 



72 



WOODWORKING 



1 

"•Jl 






r-'Qj 


1 


•r 




6" 


— T- -J*' 


—4* ^i■^ 






■^'^ 


"H 1 






/Ji' 


A 



Fig. 62.- 



WoRKiNG Drawings of Hammer 
Handle. 



8. Planing to width. 

9. Laying out curves. 

10. Cutting curves. 

11. Chamfering corners. 

12. Finishing. 

1-8. Operations from i to 8, inclusive, are the same 
as those in the first lesson. Notice that two of the 

operations have been 



omitted, viz., planing 
to length and saw- 
ing to width. They 
are unnecessary in 
this exercise. 
9. Laying out curves. — In laying out the curves, draw 

a middle line on each surface and edge. Square a hne 

across, 2^^ from one end, which we will call fhe head 

end, as it is on this end that 

the head of the hammer will 

be fitted. Square another 

Hne across, 6'' from the 

other end, which we will 

call the handle end. Draw 

these lines entirely around 

the piece. On the head end, 

gauge Y' in on the edges and 

-^q'^ in from the two surfaces, 

making a parallelogram i'' 

X I". Draw fines from 

the ij^ fine to meet the corners of this parallelo- 
gram produced to the edges. In laying out the curves, 

measure from the middle line y^'' ^^ ^^^^ direction 

across the wider surfaces and 




Fig. 63. 



— Laying out Curves on 
Hammer Handle. 



f from the center line 



HAMMER HANDLE 73 

across the narrow surfaces. Draw the curve free-hand, 
making it as nearly hke that indicated by Fig. 63 as 
possible. 

10. Cutting curves. — In cutting the curves, first 
saw down to the curves at the deepest point of the 
curve and chisel down from each end towards the saw 
cut, as illustrated in Fig. 64. Repeat this on all sides, 
chiseling as close to the line as possible without cut- 
ting it ; then chisel 

down the head to ^.^^ 

the lines marked on //^ 

the end. ^^ ^. 1 

11. Chamfering. ; _,,,^ _ | 

Chamter on: all Yig. 64. — Cutting Curves in Hammer Handle. 

corners, using the 

plane on all straight edges and the spokeshave on the 

curves. 

All chamfers should be the same width if they are cut 
to the same depth. Work down the curved surfaces as 
smooth as possible with the spokeshave, and the flat 
surfaces with the plane. 

When this operation is complete, the handle is 
ready for sandpapering. Hold it in the vise and sand- 
paper all over, as illustrated in Fig. 35, Lesson IV. 

12. Finishing. — In finishing the hammer handle, 
give it a coat of orange shellac, let dry several hours, 
and sandpaper down to the wood. The shellac fills the 
pores of the wood and renders it impervious to water. 
If the handle is to be fitted to a head of a hammer, it 
will be necessary to trim down the head end to fit the 
opening in the head, then wedge it in place, as illustrated 
in Fig. 32, Lesson III. 



74 WOODWORKING 



QUESTIONS 

1. Name the woods best suited for hammer handles, beginning 
with the best. 

2. Why is it necessary to saw down to the lowest point of the 
curve before chiseling ? 

3. Why is the handle elliptical rather than round in section ? 

4. Why is the handle coated with shellac ? 

5. Why is the shellac sandpapered off afterwards ? 



LESSON XIV 

PLANK DRAG FOR ROADS 

Stock 

2 pes. white pine or hemlock z" x 8'' x Y i eyebolt \" X 5'' 

2 pes. white pine or hemlock z" x \" X j' i chain 2' G" 

1 pc. white pine or hemlock z" X ^" X 4' i chain \' 6" 

2 bars z" round hickory i ring 3'' 

I lb. 2od spikes 
Tools 

Carpenter's square Saw Brace and bit Hammer 

Operations 

1. Laying out length. 

2. Sawing to length. 

3. Laying out holes. 

4. Spiking planks together. 

5. Boring holes. 

6. Trimming ends of crosspieces and wedging in place. 

7. Laying out brace, sawing, and nailing in place. 

8. Boring hole for eyebolt. 

9. Attaching chain. 

1-2. Laying out and sawing. — The operations of 
laying out and sawing are very simple except those for 
the brace, and consist of simply laying off the length, 
squaring across one surface and one edge, and sawing 
to these lines. Do not lay out the brace until the planks 
are fastened together. 

75 



76 



WOODWORKING 



3. Laying out holes. — Lay out the holes in the 2" 
X 4" pieces before spiking them to the z" X 8'' pieces 
so that you will not drive a spike where a hole should be. 
Figure 65 indicates where the holes should be bored. 




Fig. 65. — Working Drawing of Plank Drag. 



4. Spiking the planks. — Spike the planks together 
from the 2" X 4'' side, taking pains that the 2" X \" 
are placed on the correct side of the larger planks. 

5. Bore the holes with an expansion bit, taking the 
precautions referred to in Lesson IIL 




Fig. 66. — Laying Out Brace. (First Step.) 

6. Trim ends of crosspieces like those in the saw- 
buck and wedge them in the same way. 

7. Laying out brace, sawing, and nailing. — Lay 
brace on top of the planks and at the proper angle 



PLANK DRAG FOR ROADS 



n 



(Fig. 66). Scribe on the under edge ; square across both 
surfaces at both ends and connect the ends of these 
lines to a Hne on opposite edge. This is the length 




Fig. 67. — Laying Out Brace. (Second Step.) 

the brace would be if it were placed flush with the top ; 

or bottom ; but as it is incHned from the top of the 

back plank to the middle of the front plank, it must 

be longer than this. 

Lay one end of the 

brace on a block 4'' 

high (Fig. 67), place 

the carpenter's 

square against it, 

touching the lower 

corner a^ scribe along 

this edge, also repeat 

the operation at the 

other end, moving 

the square until the 

tongue touches the 

upper corner h, and 

scribe. 

Repeat the scribing on the opposite surface and con- 
nect the ends of these lines with lines scribed across 
the two edges. This would be the layout if there were 




Fig. 68. — Plank Drag Assembled. 



78 WOODWORKING 

no 2" X ^' piece at c. This necessitates the cutting of 
a notch. Lay it out as in the drawing, measuring over 
2" from the scribed hne and draw Hnes parallel to those 
already drawn. The notch is about 2" deep . Spike 
the brace in place after it has been fitted. 

8. Locate the eyebolt just back of the brace and in 
the middle of the width of the plank ; bore a \" hole. 

9. The chain is fastened to the eyebolt and ring by 
split links, and at e it is wrapped around the crosspiece 
and fastened with a split link. 

Sometimes the lower edge of the front plank is pro- 
tected for one half of its length with a strip of steel, as 
that is the place where most of the wear comes. 

QUESTIONS 

1. With the ring located as it is in the drawing, how will the drag 
lie as it is pulled ? 

2. Why is the brace placed diagonally from the top of the back 
plank down to the bottom of the front plank ? 

3. Where is the greatest wear on this form of drag ? 



LESSON XV 



SEWING HORSE 



This sewing horse is not Hke those used by regular 
harness makers ; but is a very simple design that will 
do on the farm, even though it is not so good as the 
other more complicated forms. 



Stock 

I pc. white pine 2''x 12^x3' 

I pc. white pine i" x 12" x 2' 8'' 

1 pc. white pine i '' x 1 2" x 3 ' 

2 pes. white pine 2" X 4''X3'4'' 
2 pes. white pine i"x 2''xi2'' 



Steel square 
Try-square 
Bevel square 
Handsaw 



Tools 

Turning saw 
Plane 

Drawshave 
Spokeshave 
Keyhole saw 



I pr. strap hinges 3" 

I lb. 2od spikes 

I lb. lod nails 

I doz. if screws, F.H. B. 



Chisel 
Hammer 
Screwdriver 
Brace and bit 



Operations 

1. Laying out and cutting bottom plank. 

2. Laying out and cutting end board. 

3. Laying out and cutting seat. 

4. Laying out and cutting jaws. 

5. Laying out and cutting cleats and boring screw holes. 

6. Assembling. 

79 



8o 



WOODWORKING 



I. Laying out and cutting bottom plank. — The bottom 
plank is to be 3' long, 12'' wide, and 2'' thick. Square 
up edges and ends. Locate the notches for the jaws by- 
measuring i' ^" and \' j" from one end, and squaring 




Jl^h 



^4'- 



EL 



lj'-o- 



h^ 




Fig. 69. — Working Drawings of Sewing Horse. 

lines across. If the jaws are wide enough to be full 4'' 
after being planed smooth, then make the notches that 
wide; if not, make them as wide as the jaws will be, 
and no wider. In determining the angle at which the 
notches are to be cut, it will be necessary to lay out the 




SEWING HORSE 8l 

jaws on a piece of board half-size in the following 
manner. Measure d" along the end of the board, and 
from each end of this Hne draw a perpendicular line 
i' y\" long ; connect the 
upper ends of these lines 
with another line, which 

should be just 6" long ^^ 

if the lines have been 

_ Fig. 70. — Notches Cut in Bottom Plank. 

drawn correctly. Lay 

off a point in the middle of the (^" line and draw two 
lines from this point to the ends of the G' Hne on the 
end of the board. These Hues represent the inner 
surfaces of the two jaws. Set the bevel, with the 
beam resting against the end of the board and the 
blade resting on one of the lines. Saw down one 
corner of the plank and chisel out, as shown in Fig. 
70, testing the chiseled surface from time to time with 
the bevel. 

2. Laying out and cutting end board. — The end board 
is laid out i'' X iz" X z' %" long and squared up on 
the edges and ends. 

3. Laying out and cutting seat. — Lay out the seat 
i'' X 12'' X 3'. Square up the edges and the two ends, 

plane the upper surface 
smooth. Measure i' 1" 
from one end and square 
«'--r>r\ \ across the surface ; then 

measure i' 7'' from the 




Fig. 71. — Seat of Sewing Horse. 



same end, if the jaws 
are full 4.'' wide, and square across. Compare with the 
lay-out shown in Fig. 71. Measure in 2'' from each 
edge on line ab and from these points draw two lines 





82 WOODWORKING 

parallel with the edges cd and ef. Lay out the curve 
of the seat as indicated by the figure. 

In laying out the holes, measure in from each 
edge 2\" and again ^" from each edge. At these four 
points draw lines parallel to the edges and between 
lines gh and ij. Bore i" holes at the opposite corners 

a and h, Fig. 72. With 
the keyhole saw, saw along 
the adjacent sides. 

When both holes have 
been sawed out, chisel out 

Fig. 72.-CUTTING Holes in Seat. ^j^^ -^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^.j ^j^^^, 

are the same bevel as the notches in the bottom plank. 
A cross section through the holes is shown in Fig. 73. 
The sides of the two holes are beveled in the opposite 
directions. 

In cutting out the curve of the seat either use a 
turning saw, cutting just outside the line and finishing 
down to the line with the spokeshave ; or with the 
handsaw, saw down to the bottom of the concave curve 
and chisel from both sides down to this kerf, then 
finish with the spokeshave. Saw off the corners and 
with the drawshave cut down to . 

b ^ 

the lines. E^ ^mwwmwwm 



If you have a turning saw, ^lo. 73.- Section through 
, . . „ Seat, Showing Holes. 

use that m cuttmg all curves, 

turning the handles whenever the frame hits the 

board. 

The top of the curve is rounded with the spokeshave 
to make it more comfortable. 

4. Laying out and cutting jaws. — The lower ends of 
the jaws will have to be beveled at the same angle as 



SEWING HORSE 83 

the edges of the notches ; so if you have the bevel 
still set at that angle, use it ; but if not, then set it 
from the board you laid out, not from the angle of the 
notches. (Always take measurements and angles from 
some one pattern or measure. Never take measure- 
ments from each piece of work finished, or the last 
piece will be far different from the first piece or pattern.) 
Bevel the lower ends of the jaws, and also the upper 
ends at the same angle, but from opposite surfaces. 

Then with the compass set at 2" strike a curve 
at the upper ends 
and chisel down 
to this curve ; and 
finish with the block 
plane. Bore holes 
in the lower ends 
of the jaws for the 
2od spikes so the 
ends will not split 
when the spikes are 

dFiG. 74. — Sewing Horse Assembled. 
riven m. 

5. Laying out and cutting cleats and boring screw holes. 
— The cleats are laid out and planed \" X 2" X \2" . 
Square up and bore 6 holes for the screws, staggering 
the holes, as shown in the drawing. 

6. Assembling. — Firsts nail the end board on to the 
plank. Second, screw the cleats to the top of the seat 
on each side of the holes, as shown in the drawing. 
Third, fasten the seat to the end board with the strap 
hinges on the under side. Fourth, place the jaws 
through the holes in the seat and nail the lower ends 
to the plank. 




84 WOODWORKING 

By lifting the seat, the jaws can be opened ; by sitting 
on the seat, the jaws can be closed with considerable 
force. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is a 2" plank better for the bottom than a i" board ? 

2. Why are cleats necessary across the top of the seat ? 

3. Why are the tops of the jaws rounded ? 



LESSON XVI 



TRUSSED LADDER 
Stock 



4 pes. white oak i" X i" X lo' 

lo pes. white oak i" X 5'' X 12" 

2 pes. white oak i'' X i" X 12'' 

Shellac 



12 earriage bolts I" x 6" 
8 earriage bolts i" X 4'' 
4 earriage bolts J'' X 3" 



Tools 



RuIeS 
Saw 



Try-square 
Braee and bit 



Keyhole saw 
Spokeshave 



Marking gauge 
Sandpaper 



Operations 

1. Squaring up side strips and eutting taper at ends. 

2. Squaring up steps and eutting notehes. 

3. Making rungs. 

4. Laying out and boring holes. 

5. Assembling and shellaeking. 

I. Squaring up side strips and cutting taper at ends. — 
The side strips are planed i " square and are then clamped 
to two blocks 3'' wide, 
placed about 3' from 
each end. The ends 

are OVerlaoned and ^^^' 7^- — Overlapping Ends of Side Strips. 

held in place with clamps, as shown in Fig. 75. Then a 
line ab is drawn from where the pieces cross each other. 

FARM SHOP WORK — 7 85 




86 



WOODWORKING 



Saw the ends of the strips along this Une and plane 
smooth. 

2. Squaring up steps and cutting notches. — The steps 
are all squared up to the same size and planed smooth. 
After the ladder is assembled temporarily, some of the 
steps near the end will be found extending out beyond 
the strips. Cut six steps as shown in Fig. 76, with the 



o 




Fig. 76. — Working Drawings of Trussed Ladder. 

\" X \" notches cut at each corner. Two of the re- 
maining four steps will be cut with the notches \\" 
deep, and the other two with the notches 2" deep. 
The tenons between these three kinds of notches are 3'', 
z" ^ and \" wide respectively. 

3. Making rungs. — The two rungs, one for each end 
of the ladder, are made \" in diameter and \2" long, 
by the method given in Lesson III. 

4. Laying out and boring holes. — Locate the holes as 



TRUSSED LADDER 87 

follows. 5'' from one end square a line across the strips ; 
10'^ from this line square across another line, and re- 
peat every 10''. The last line will be 5'' from the farther 
end of the strips. With the gauge set at J'^ gauge 
lines across each of the lines squared across ; these lo- 
cate the Y' holes that are to be bored for the bolts which 
will hold the strips together. Place the ends of two 
steps between the strips and clamp in place with car- 
riage clamps, as in Fig. 75. Be sure that the steps are 
centered on the Hnes squared across, and that the 
shoulders of the steps are up tight against the strips. 
Bore a I" hole through the strip and halfway through 
the step ; reverse and bore from the opposite side, meet- 
ing the first hole in the center of the step. This insures 
a straight hole. As soon as the hole is bored, place a 
bolt in it, and screw on a nut and washer. Continue 
this until all steps are in place. The steps near the end 
will project beyond the strips. Mark them along the 
edge of the strips, so that they can be taken out and cut 
down to size. The}/^ are to be cut the same shape as the 
full-sized steps, but of course all dimensions should be 
reduced. When all the steps have been fitted, fasten 
the ends of the side strips together with large screws. 
Bore i'^ holes for the rungs at the place marked out for 
them, and then bore I" holes for the j^ bolts that hold 
the rungs in place. Fasten the rungs in place with ^ 
bolts. 

5. Assembling and shellacking. — When the ladder 
has been fitted, screw all the nuts tight and give the 
whole a coat of shellac. Follow this with a sandpaper- 
ing, and a second coat of shellac. Then the ladder is 
ready for use. 



88 WOODWORKING 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is it necessary to clamp the strips in place before laying 
out the taper for the ends ? 

2. Of what use are the notches in the ends of the steps ? 

3. How do you lay out an octagon in laying out the rungs ? 

4. Why not bore all the holes straight through the strips instead 
of boring them after the steps have been fitted in place ? 

5. Why is it necessary to fasten the ends with screws before 
boring the i" hole for the rungs ? 



LESSON XVII 



COMBINATION LADDER 



A combination ladder is one which can be used as a 
step ladder and also changed into a longer ladder of the 
common type. 

S OCK 

2 side strips oak f X 4'' X 5' 
2 side bars elm i" X 2" x 4' 6" 
5 steps oak I" x 5'' X i' 5'' 
I step oak f' X 6" X l' 10'' 
5 rungs oak i'' round X i' 6'' 



I J doz. screws f , No. 8 
2 doz. screws 2", No. 10 



I bolt 



X I' 7 



Chain and screw eye 



2 bolts f 

2 iron plates 

2 iron straps 

3 iron hooks 



X2r 



Steel square 
Try-square 
Bevel 
Keyhole Saw 



Tools 
Saw 
Plane 

Brace and bit 
Sandpaper 

Operations 



Screwdriver 
Chisel 
Marking gauge 



1. Laying out and cutting side pieces. 

2. Laying out and boring side bars. 

3. Laying out and cutting steps. 

4. Laying out and making rungs. 

5. Making iron plates and straps. 

6. Cutting the curve in the ends of the side pieces. 

7. Assembling and shellacking. 

89 



90 



WOODWORKING 



I. Laying out and cutting side pieces. — The side 
pieces are f" X 4^' X 5^ made of oak or some other 
hardwood and planed smooth with the edges and ends 
squared. Lay out the bevel for the top and bottom 
and steps in the same way as in Lesson XV. 




Fig. 77. — Working Drawings of Combination Ladder. 



Lay out, half size, a side piece on a board in the fol- 
lowing manner. Measure along the edge of the board 
^' 2" and from this point square in i' 3^' from the 
edge. Draw a line from the corner of the board to 
the point just located. This hne represents the in- 
clination of the side pieces when the ladder is standing. 



COMBINATION LADDER 



91 



Set the beam of the bevel against the end of the board 
and adjust the blade along the inclined line. 

Beginning at a. Fig. JJ, lay off the bevel ae and meas- 
ure up from point a ()" to h. Lay off another bevel, 
then measure \" to r, and lay off another bevel. Con- 
tinue this operation until all steps are laid off. On the 
other side piece repeat the operation, but on the reverse 
side; that is, so that when both pieces are laid off and 
placed together, face to face, the Unes will all coincide, 
or touch each other. 

At the points where these bevel lines touch the edges, 
square across the edges with the try-square. With the 
marking gauge set at \", gauge between the lines along 
both edges, holding the guide against the inner surface 
of the piece. This means that the grooves are to be \" 
wide and \" deep. With the hacksaw, saw very care- 
fully inside the lines. 

A method very often used when accurate work is 
desired is as follows : select a small strip of hardwood 
about 6'' long and i'' square; lay this on the outside 
of the line with the edge j ust covering the line and .fasten 
in place with two carriage clamps ; hold the blade of 
the saw against the piece and saw down to the required 
depth, \". 

When all grooves have been cut, chisel out the grooves 
with a J^' chisel. Chisel from both edges towards the 
middle so as not to get the groove too deep. Test the 
bottom of the groove from time to time by laying the 
edge of the chisel along the bottom. 

2. Laying out and boring side bars. — The side bars 
are i" x 2'' x 4' ^" • Elm makes better side bars 
than any other wood because of its toughness. Plane, 



92 



WOODWORKING 



square up the edges and sides. With the compass 
set at i" radius, draw semicircles at each end of 
the bars. Saw along each semicircle with a keyhole 
saw. 

Lay out the holes as follows : i" from one end square 
a line across the surface; lo'' from this hne square 
another line across ; <^" from this line square another 
line across, and so on every g" until five holes have been 
located. This brings the last hole ly from the end of 
the bar. 

Set the marking gauge at i" and gauge a short line 
cutting each of the five lines drawn. Repeat these 
operations on the other bar. 

Set the gauge at \" and gauge from both edges be- 
tween the first two holes ; this is for a slot which is to 
be cut 8J'' long and J'' wide. 

The slot begins at a point \" from the edge of the first 
hole. You must lay this out accurately or the ladder 
will not work properly when you want to make the 
change from a step ladder to an extension ladder. 

Whpn the work is all laid out, bore the holes for the 
rungs, using a I" bit and boring from both sides so as 
to insure clean holes. 

For the slot, use a f bit and bore a row of holes in- 
side the gauged lines as close together as possible ; then 
chisel out the slot smooth, chiseling from both sides. 

3. Laying out and cutting steps. — Surface the steps, 
square up the edges and the ends so that they are all 
exactly of the same dimensions, — f X 5'' X i' ^\" . 
As the grooves cut for the steps are only f wide, it 
will be necessary to plane the thickness a trifle over f ", 
which we will call f full, so as to insure the steps fit- 



COMBINATION LADDER 



93 



ting tight enough to make it necessary to drive in 
with the mallet. 

Some workmen advise planing down the ends of the 
steps until they fit the groove. This method is not ad- 
vised, as it does not give strong joints where strength 
is needed ; and it 
is a sort of cut-and- 
try method, which 
is not recom- 
mended in any 
work where it can 
be avoided. 

If the steps are 
not all the same / / / 
length, the longest ' / / / 
will prevent the 
others from fitting 
properly. The top 
step is longer and 
wider than the 
others, being i' lO^' 
long and &' wide. 

4. Laying out and 
making rungs. — In 

making the rungs ^^^- 78. — Detail at Top of Step Ladder. 

saw out the strips \" square and \' G' long; square 
up on all four sides with the plane until the pieces 
are exactly \" square. Lay off on each stick an octa- 
gon in the following manner. Firsts measure across 
the diagonal of the end of the stick. Second, set the 
gauge at one half this distance and gauge from all four 
sides in both directions, which will leave two fines on 




94 



WOODWORKING 



"^-^ 



each surface. Third, place the square piece in the 
board made for this purpose, which is shown in Fig. 
125, page 155 ; plane each corner down to the gauged 
lines and you will have an octagon. Fourth, lay the 
octagonal pieces on the bench against the bench dog 
and make about three cuts with the plane on each 
of the eight corners remaining. Fifth, hold the stick 
in the vise and with coarse sandpaper cut off the re- 
maining corners, turning the stick frequently so as to 

insure even cut- 
ting. In this way 
it is possible to 
make a stick nearly 
as round as it would 
be if turned in a 
lathe. Trim down 
the ends to fit the 
holes and split 
them with a saw 
for the wedges. 

5. Making iron plates and straps. — The ironwork 
is described under Blacksmithing. 

6. Cutting the curve in the ends of the side pieces. — 
In cutting the curve under the top step, lay a side piece 
on the bench and place a block against the edge near 
the acute angle of the top of the piece. Gauge a line i '' 
from the edge of the block that rests against the side 
piece and set the compass at 2" ; scribe an arc similar 
to the one in the detailed drawing, Fig. 78. Saw this 
out with a keyhole saw and smooth with sandpaper. 

7. Assembling and shellacking. — First, fit all steps in 
place and fasten with 2'' screws ; and fasten on the top 




Fig. 79. — Detail showing Attachment of Hook. 



COMBINATION LADDER 95 

step. Second, drive the rungs in place so that the saw 
kerfs in the ends are perpendicular to the sides of the 
bars, otherwise driving in the wedges will be apt to split 
the bars. Then drive in the wedges. Third, put the 
iron straps and plates in place, and fasten the two parts 
of the ladder together with the bolt. Fourth, the hooks 
are to be fastened to the side bars where the next to the 
top step is located, as shown in the detailed drawing. 
Fig. 79. Take out the screw ; saw a slit deep enough 
to admit the hook ; and replace the screw through the 
eye of the hook. Fifth, fasten the chain and the screw 
eye in place so that the ladder can be spread the proper 
distance. Sixth, shellac and sandpaper. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are the steps let into the sides ? 

2. Why is the top of the support ironed ? 

3. Why do you bore holes from both sides.? 

4. How do you lay out an octagon ? 



LESSON XVIII 



FARMER'S LEVEL 



The farmer^s level consists of a tripod and a turn- 
table composed of a crosspiece holding two uprights, 
to which are fastened two glass tubes connected by a 
rubber tube. The turntable is fastened to the tripod 
head by a pivot screw, which enables it to rotate in 
any direction. 



TTffjm^ 




Fig. 8o. — Method of Using Farmer's Level. 

Water is poured into the tubes until within an inch 
or so of the top. When the tripod is set up, one can be 
sure that the water in the tubes is at the same level, and 
so a line sighted across the water surfaces is horizontal 
or level. Suppose it were required to find the difference 
in level of two points A and B, Fig. 80. Set the level 
about midway between A and B and sight across to 
the leveling rod placed at A. When the target is raised 

96 



FARMER'S LEVEL 97 

so it can be seen on a level with the water surface, then 
it is at the same level as the surface of the water. Note 
the height of the target above the ground at A. Place 
the rod at B and raise target until it is level with the 
surface of the water in the tubes. The difference be- 
tween the height of the target when at A and when at B 
is the difference between the level of the ground at A 
and B. If the target at A stood at 2', and the one at B 
6\ then the point B is 4' lower than A. Without mov- 
ing the level one can determine the heights of several 
points by turning the turntable in different directions. 

Stock 

I pc. white pine I" X 8'' x 4' 

1 pc. hard wood |'' X 6'' square 

2 glass tubes 6^' x f diameter 
I rubber tube to fit glass tubes 
18 screws i'\ No. 38, F. H. B. 
5 screws i|'', No. 38, F. H. B. 
4 screws \'\ No. 3, R. H. Bl. 

Tools 

Rule Try-square Marking gauge 

Ripsaw Plane Brace and bit 

Turning saw Screwdriver Gouge 

Chisel Cabinet file Sandpaper 

Carpenter's square 

Operations 

Legs of Tripod 

1. Laying out the legs. 

2. Ripping the legs. 

3. Planing the edges of the legs. 



98 



WOODWORKING 



4. Laying ofF the middle lines on the legs. 

5. Squaring up the ends. 

6. Locating and boring holes for hinges. 

7. Pointing the smaller ends of the legs. 

Tripod Head 

1. Surfacing one side. 

2. Gauging to thickness. 

3. Surfacing other side. 

4. Laying off the circle. 

5. Cutting the circle. 

6. Laying off and boring screw holes for hinges. 

7. Boring hole for pivot. 

Turntable 

1. Surfacing one side. 

2. Planing one edge. 

3. Gauging to thickness. 

4. Surfacing other side. 

5. Planing other edge. 

6. Laying out length. 

7. Sawing to length. 

8. Planing ends. 

9. Boring the holes in the uprights. 

10. Gouging the groove in the crosspiece. 

11. Boring the screw holes and pivot hole. 

All Parts 
I. Assembhng. 

Legs of Tripod 

I and 2. Laying out and ripping the legs. — There are 
several methods of laying out the legs, but the one 
given here is economical in both material and labor; 



FARMER'S LEVEL 



99 



and in making large or small pieces it is advisable to be 
as economical in lumber and time as possible. 

Select a pine board that has been surfaced or planed 




Fig. 8i. — Working Drawings of Farmer's Level. 

on both sides and is about |'' thick. Measure off 4' 
in length. (See Fig. 82.) From one corner a measure off 
'}," to b. From the other corner c measure off 1" to d. 
Draw a Une between h and d. 



^-L 



■Ufa 









'^. 



ViG. 82. — Laying off Legs of Tripod. 



Before laying off the other legs, this one should be 
ripped off; for the reason that if all the legs were laid 
off at once and then ripped, they would be too small. 
Therefore, lay off one leg and rip, being careful to saw 



lOo WOODWORKING 

in the material to be removed. Plane the edge of the 
board just ripped before laying out the second leg; and 
lay off the second leg with the point e ^" from c and the 
point/ \" from h. Rip this off and plane the edge of 
the board before laying off the third leg ; and then lay 
off ^ 3'' from/ and k \" from e and rip. 

You will notice that the legs have been laid off so 
that the least possible material has been used and the 
least possible number of saw cuts, which leaves enough 
material for the turntable. 

3. Planing the edges of the legs. — One edge of each 
leg will be left rough by the ripsaw and should be planed 
down smooth and to the required 
dimensions. 

4. Laying off the middle lines on 
the legs. — It will be necessary to lay 
off middle Hnes on each leg before 
Fig. 83.— Hinge for the ends Can be squared up. Select 

Farmer's Level. . . , , j 7 j 

a pomt midway between a and b and 
another midway between c and d and connect these 
points with a line. 

5. Squaring up the ends. — With a carpenter's steel 
square placed so that its inner edge touches the middle 
Hne, square across the wider ends of all three legs. The 
narrow ends do not need squaring up as they are to be 
pointed. It is unnecessary to plane the ends smooth. 

6. Locating and boring screw holes for hinges. — The 
hinges should be of the pattern indicated in Fig. 83. 
The strap leaf should extend along the leg, and the other 
leaf should be fastened to the tripod head. It is better 
not to fasten the hinges to the legs until the screw 
holes have been bored in the tripod head. 




FARMER'S LEVEL 



lOI 



7. Pointing the smaller ends of the legs. — Measure 
up i" from the smaller end of the legs and square 
around on four sides. From these marks, chisel towards 
the center line on the two surfaces and towards the 
middle from the two edges. 



Tripod Head 

1. Surfacing one side. — Select a hard wood, as maple, 
birch, or oak. It will be necessary to have a board 
at least 6" square and f thick. Sur- 
face one side. 

2. Gauging to thickness. — Gauge 
to thickness on all edges. 

3. Surfacing other side. — Surface 
the other side, planing down to the 
gauge lines. 

4. Laying off the circle. — Draw 




Fig. 



— Laying off 
Circle. 




Fig. 85. — Method of Hoi.ding a Turn- 
ing Saw. 

FARM SHOP WORK — 8 



diagonals from the four 
corners of the board. 
Locate the center and 
then draw the circle with 
the compass set at 3'' 
radius. (See Fig. 84.) 

5. Cutting the circle. — 
There are two methods of 
cutting the circle. If 
you have a turning saw, 
use it and saw about -^q" 
outside the hne, holding 
the saw as illustrated in 
Fig. 85. Then it is nec- 
essary to smooth the edge 



I02 



WOODWORKING 




Fig. 86. 



Cutting out Circle with 
A Chisel. 



down with a cabinet file and sandpaper. Take pains to 

keep the edge square with the surfaces. The second 

method is to saw off the 
corners and chisel down to 
the hne as in Fig. 86. This 
method can be followed 
when no turning saw is 
available. Be careful to 
place a board under the 
piece so as to prevent the 
chisel cutting the bench 
top. Always chisel in the 
direction of the grain and 
not in the crosswise direc- 
tion, to avoid splitting the 
wood. Be sure the under 

board is flat, or you will be apt to spHnter the under 

side of the piece. 

6. Laying off and boring screw holes for the hinges. — 

There are three legs to be fastened to the tripod head. 

In order to locate them equidistant it will be necessary 

to divide the circle into three equal 

parts. Draw a diameter through the 

center of the circle and with one leg 

of the compass at point <3, scribe 

points c and b. The distance be- 
tween the legs of the compass must 

be equal to the radius of the circle. 

These two points with d divide the 

circle into three equal parts. (See Fig. 

87.) From points c and h draw lines to the center ; on 

these hnes locate the three hinges by placing the center 




Fig. 87. — Points at 
WHICH Hinges are 
Attached. 



FARMER'S LEVEL 103 

of the hinges on the hnes and the edges equidistant from 
the edge of the circle, as at e. Mark the screw holes 
and bore them with a gimlet bit a trifle smaller than the 
screws to be used. 

7. Boring hole for pivot. — To bore the hole for the 
pivot screw, select a bit a trifle smaller than the screw 
and bore a hole in the center of the circle nearly through 
the board. 

Turntable 

1-8. — For the turntable, use the fourth piece of pine 
cut off from the legs. The operations 1-8 are the same 
as those of Lesson I and need not be repeated here. 

9, Boring the holes in the upright blocks. — When 
the two short 

blocks have been 
properly squared 
up, fasten them 
together in the 

vise, end gram p^^ 88. — Sltpport for Glass Tubes. 

Uppermost. Lo- 
cate the center by drawing diagonals from the corners, 
and bore the larger hole first, halfway through the 
block. Reverse the ends and bore the smaller hole 
the rest of the way, meeting the other hole in the 
center. (See Fig. 81.) 

The smaller hole is the size of the glass tubes, and 
the larger hole the size of the rubber tubing after it has 
been attached to the glass tubes. 

10. Gouging the groove in the crosspiece. — The 
part of the rubber tube that connects the glass tubes 
must have a groove in which to he ; so the crosspiece 




I04 



WOODWORKING 



must be grooved with a half-round gouge to a depth 
equal to one half the diameter of the rubber tubing. 

II. Boring the screw holes and pivot hole. — The up- 
rights are to be fastened to the crosspiece, as in Fig. 88, 
with screws from the under side, two screws in each 
end. In the center of the crosspiece and at the bottom 
of the groove bore a hole the size of the pivot screw, 
and countersink. 

All Parts 

I. Assembling. — In assembling, first fasten the 
hinges to the under side of the tripod head ; then fasten 
the legs on the hinges with screws. Next fasten the 
turntable to the tripod by a pivot screw through the 
center. Now fasten the tubes and rubber tubing to 
the uprights by strips of leather or tin held in place by 
small, round-headed, blue screws. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In laying out taper legs, why do you reverse every other piece ? 

2. Why do you plane down one edge before laying out the next 
leg? 

3. Why is a middle line on each leg necessary ? 

4. Which method of cutting a circle do you prefer ? Why ? 

5. Why is it best to have a groove in the crosspiece for the rubber 
tubing ? 



LESSON XIX 

LEVELING ROD 

Stock 
I pc. pine i" X 2'' X 5' i pc brass, 16 gauge, 7" X 4'' 

I pc. Dine i" X li" X 5' ^" i PC- spring brass 4'' X i'' 

1 pc. pine i'' X i¥' X 5' 6'' 2 screws f^'. No. 6 

2 pes. pine i'' X ¥' X 5' 6'' 4 screws i''. No. 8 
2 pes. pine r' X i" X 5' 6^' i lb. i" brads 

I pc. pine Y' X 6'' X 6^' i lb. i'^ brads 

Glue and shellac 

Tools 

Rule Try-square Marking gauge 

Plane Hammer Sandpaper 

File Drill 

Operations 

1. Gauging and planing stock to size. 

2. Assembling all pieces and shellacking. 

3. Laying off graduations. 

4. Making the target. 

I. Gauging and planing stock to size. — If the lum- 
ber comes in the rough, it should be a quarter over size 
to allow for surfacing. This exercise requires a con- 
siderable degree of accuracy in measuring and plamng. 

Plane up the piece a, Fig. 91, to size, following the 
directions given in previous lessons as to plamng up 

105 



io6 



WOODWORKING 




stock. The dimensions of this piece will 
be i'' X 2" X 5' 6''. As it is a thin, nar- 
row piece, it is apt to buckle and break in 
planing. To prevent this, fasten the two 
ends to a board, as shown in Fig. 90, by- 
boring \" holes through the piece and 
board and driving hardwood pegs in flush 
with the top of the piece to be planed. 
Very thin lumber can be surfaced this 
way, and all the pieces in this exercise 
can be planed on the same board with 
the same pegs and board. Each of strips 
d, e, /, and g, Fig. 91, are \" thick and 
so can be planed in one strip and cut 
apart afterwards. In cutting apart the 
strips, some lumber will be wasted, as the 
edges must be planed, so it will be neces- 
sary to allow for this waste and make the 
piece from which they are cut i\" wide, 
although the sum of the widths is only i J". 
It will be almost impossible to cut off 
the narrow strips with the saw, so the 
Fig. 89.— Level- following method is recommended. File 

iNG Rod, Front , p , , . -i . 

AND Side Views, the spur ot the matkmg gauge until it 

resembles the point of a knife, and set the 

gauge at a little over \" and gauge on both surfaces as 

deeply as possible ; the spur will cut nearly through, 

so that a jackknife drawn along the groove will easily 

cut them apart. Next ^ 

plane up the two edges \ x 

and cut the second strip _ ., 

. Fig. 90. — Holding a Thin Strip for 

the same width, rlane Planing. 



LEVELING ROD 



107 



3// 

8 > 



and cut two more 



^'i 



up the edges, set the gauge at 
strips in the same way. 

2. Assembling all pieces and shellacking. — Strip c 
should now be glued and nailed to strip b in the posi- 
tion shown in Fig. 91, end view. 

Then strips/ and g should be glued and nailed together 
and fastened to strip a ; Hkewise strips d and e. Care- 
fully wipe away all glue that 
squeezes out from the joints, as 
it would prevent the sliding of 
the strips if allowed to harden. 
The whole should be sand- 
papered smooth, shellacked, 
then sandpapered again. Be 
sure that cb is in position when 
you fasten de to a, or it will 
not fit ; but be sure to with- 
draw it soon, or it will be glued 
by the excess glue that squeezes 
out from the joint. 

3. Laying off graduations. — 
Lay off the graduations with .^ 
waterproof India ink. Begin- l 
ning at the bottom of strip f, y^q gj 
lay off feet, inches, and half 
inches up to 5'. On the bottom of the second strip a lay 
off the same graduations, but begin where the others 
left off, that is, at 5'. Shellac over the graduations. 
In using the leveling rod the height of the target is 
read directly from the scale on a. If the height 
is 7', the bottom of strip c rests on the y' mark of 
strip a. 



ffh 



cjlued jomh 



Details of Leveling 
Rod. 



io8 



WOODWORKING 



4. Making the target. — Make the target round and 
G' in diameter. Plane both surfaces smooth before 
cutting out the circle ; then lay out the circle and chisel 
around, beginning with the grain of the wood and chisel- 
ing towards each end. Place a piece of coarse sand- 
paper on a block and smooth down to a perfect circle; 
then finish with No. i sandpaper. 

Draw two diameters at right angles to each other, 
and with black shellac color alternate quarter circles 
black; then shellac all over with white shellac. Sand- 
paper down to a smooth finish. Bore a i'' hole in center 
of target so that you can see the graduations. 

Make a brass stirrup so it will just fit over the leveling 
rod and have two flanges about \" wide through which 

screws can be driven to 
hold it to the target. (See 
Fig. 92.) Drill two holes 
in each flange large enough 
to fit the \" screws. With 
the hammer, dent in the 

Fig. g.-SxiKKUP pok Leveling Rod. ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^jj^ ^ 

little at a ; this will make it bind on the rod and cause 
it to stay wherever placed without holding. Saw off 
the top G" of the part adefg, Fig. 91, and fasten to part 
he with two screws. 





QUESTIONS 

1. What method do you prefer in planing up thin stock ? 

2. What method is best in splitting thin stock into strips .'' 

3. How would you measure heights over 5 feet t 



LESSON XX 

THREE HORSE EVENER 

With this form of an evener no horse can pull less 
than his share of the load. 

Stock 



I." 

2 



I pc. hickory or white oak z" X ^" X 4' 5 
I pc. hickory or white oak i\" X ^-h" X 3' i" 
3 pes. hickory or white oak i^" X 3'' X 2' 6" 

Tools 

Rule Saw Brace and bit 

Try-square Plane Spokeshave 

Marking gauge 

Operations 

1. Laying out evener. 

2. Laying out doubletree. 

3. Laying out singletrees. 

4. Sawing and boring. 

5. Chamfering. 

6. Ironing. 

I. Laying out evener. — Lay out point c 2" from 
point /, Fig. 94. Lay out point d 2" from point g 
at the other end. Square across both ends at these 
points. Lay out point e 18^'' from / and square 
across one surface. 3'' from e on either side locate 

109 



no WOODWORKING 

points h and i and square across the edge at these 
points. Locate the holes at K and by L measuring 
in from each end 2'' and up 3'' from the lower edge. On 
Une squared across from e locate hole AI i'' from lower 
edge. Connect points d and i with a Une on each sur- 
face ; also connect points c and h with similar Unes. 

2. Laying out doubletree. — Lay out point c i^' from 
point/, Fig. 95. Lay out point d i^' from point g at 
the other end. Square across both ends at these points. 
Lay out point e i' 6^" from each end and square across 
one surface. From e lay out points h and i 2\" on each 
side. Connect points c and h with Unes on both sur- 
faces, also points d and i. Locate holes at K and L by 
measuring in from both ends 2" and up from the lower 
edge 2" . Locate hole ^t M i" up from the lower edge 
on line squared across from e. 

3. Laying out singletrees. — Lay out c \" from/, 
Fig. 96, and d i" from g, and square across the ends 
at these points. Lay out e \' 3'' from each end and 
square across one surface. 2'' on either side of e locate h 
and i. Connect c and h with Unes on both surfaces ; 
connect also d and i. Locate hole M by measuring 
up from lower edge i'' on line squared across from e. 
If hooks as shdwn in Fig. 208, page 233, are desired, 
then locate the holes shown in the drawing. If hooks 
as shown in Fig. 209, page 234, are wanted, then the 
ends of the singletrees should be rounded to fit the 
same, or if in diameter. 

4. Sawing and boring. — Bore \" holes at K and L 
and i" hole at M (Fig. 94). Bore J'' holes at K and L 
and I" hole at M (Fig. 95). Bore }/' hole at M 
(Fig. 96). 



^.^^*-1 





% 



T . 

i 



Kf- 



a 



l-r-?-*-— f 



^3- 



4- 



H- o ;3 



o:> 



■4y^^ 



_L 



• k^H- 



►© 



1^. 



-a 



III 



112 WOODWORKING 

Rip along the lines ch and di in Figs. 94, 95, 96, and 
plane smooth. 

5. Chamfering. — With the marking gauge set at 
f gauge all surfaces, edges, and ends of evener. With 
the gauge set at \" gauge all surfaces, edges, and ends 
of doubletree and singletrees. With the block plane 
chamfer down to the Hnes across the grain at the ends 
of all pieces. 

With the spokeshave begin to chamfer the corners, 
beginning at points h and i in all cases ; when nearly 
down to the lines, finish the chamfering with the plane. 

6. Ironing. — The ironing consists of assembling 
the various parts with the irons described under the 
subject of Blacksmithing. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the advantages of this type of evener ? 

2. Can any doubletree be used on the shorter end ? 

3. Is there any advantage in tapering the members on the edges 
near the horses ? 



LESSON XXI 

FARM GATE 

Stock 

6 boards pine i" X 6'' X 12' 
3 boards pine i'' X 6" X 5' 
I board pine i'' X 6" X 9' 
I pc. hard wood i'' X 3" X 4' 6'' 
I pc. hickory i'' X i" X 3' 3" 
I lb. lod. nails 

1 pair hinges 

2 doz. screws 2'', No. 10, F. H. B. 

Tools 

Steel square Hammer 

Saw Screwdriver 

Operations 

1. Sawing boards to length. 

2. Nailing gate together. 

3. Cutting bevel on brace. 

4. Making catch, spring, and slot. 

5. Hanging on hinges. 

I. Sawing boards to length. — The gate is to be 12' 
long ; so measure up and saw off six boards of that 
length. The three uprights are to be 5' long and the 
brace is to be 9' long. The brace should not be beveled 
until after the gate has been assembled. 

113 



114 



WOODWORKING 



2. Nailing gate together. — Lay five of the 12' 
boards G' apart on the floor. Lay the sixth board 
against the edge of the fifth. (See A^ Fig. 97.) Lay 
one upright across each end ; and drive one nail 
through the uprights into the end of each board prop- 
erly spaced, with the end of the boards flush with the 
edge of the upright. An easy and satisfactory method 



8-0' 




Fig. 97. — Farm Gate. 



of spacing the boards is to take a block that has been 
cut from one of the boards and place it between the 
last board nailed and the next one to be nailed. When 
you have put one nail in each board, then square up 
the gate with the steel square and fasten in place by 
driving a second nail in each board. Four feet from 
one end square a line across the top and bottom board. 
This line locates the third crosspiece, which should be 
nailed in place. 

3. Cutting bevel on brace. — To cut the bevel on the 
ends of the brace, lay it on the gate so that the ends 
are flush with the top of the upright at the end and 
with the bottom of the next upright. Place the steel 
square so that its edge is flush with the edge of the up- 



FARM GATE 



115 




Fig. 98. — Sagging of a Gate Due to 
Lack of Bracing. 



right, line across the bevel, and saw along this Hne. 
Repeat at the other end. 

The principle of this brace is one that is so commonly 
used on the farm, that it will be described at length. 
The entire weight of the gate is supported from one 
end. This causes the free 
end to sag, as shown in 
Fig. 98. The sag of the 
gate will increase the dis- 
tance between a and h and 
decrease the distance be- 
tween c and d. When the 
gate is held level, the dis- 
tance ah is equal to the dis- 
tance cd. To keep the gate level, some means of keep- 
ing the distances equal must be devised. If a board 
were nailed on between points a and h, it would hold 
the gate level, but a strong steel wire would do just as 
well, and perhaps better. This proves that the tend- 
ency to sag exerts a pull force, or, as it is called, a 
tension. Likewise anything that will keep the points 
c and d from coming together will keep the gate level. 
Evidently a wire connecting these points will not keep 
them the proper distance apart. A board nailed con- 
necting points c and d will have the same tendency to 
keep the gate level as would a wire connecting points 
a and h. If both are used, a double effect is secured. 

Another fact to remember in bracing gates is that the 
more nearly perpendicular the compression or tension 
brace is, the stronger it is. If a gate were divided into 
three parts and each section braced, as in Fig. 99, it 
would be stronger than if it had only one brace, because 



ii6 



WOODWORKING 




each brace would be nearer a perpendicular ; but the 
gate would also be heavier and require more material, 
which would be disadvantageous. 
If a gate were made longer than 
twelve feet, it would be advisable 
Fig. gy. — brac.ng a Long to have two such braces instead of 
^^""- one. 

4. Making catch, spring, and slot. — The catch should 
be made of some hard wood i'' X 3" X 4' 6". i" from 
one end a J" hole is bored, 12'' from the same end 
another \" hole is bored, 9" from the other end another 
hole of the same size is bored. Hard wood pegs should 
be fitted in these holes. The 
one for the first hole needs to 
be about 3" long, while the 
other should be about 5'' long 
so that it can be handled easily 
in pulHng back the catch to 
open the gate (Fig. 100). The 
spring should be made of hick- 
ory 3' 3" long and about i" 
square. 

The larger end of the spring 
is cut on a bevel so that the end Fig. 100.— Catch, Spring, and 

.,, . , 1 // r 1 Slot of Gate. 

Will project about 2^ rrom the 

upright. Bore holes through the larger end of the 
spring so that it can be nailed to the upright and hori- 
zontal boards. When the catch is pulled back by the 
peg, the spring will force it back again into the slot in 
the post. The end of the catch that fits in the slot 
should be rounded so that it will slide easily up the 
beveled edges. The slot can be cut in the post, if the 





FARM GATE II7 

post is large; otherwise one can be made from a block 
of hard wood, as shown in Fig. 100, and nailed to the 
post. Lay the catch where it belongs on the gate and 
nail over it two strips in line with the two uprights. 

5. The hinges are described under Blacksmithing. 
They are fastened to the upright of the gate with the 
heavy wood screws. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by tension and compression? 

2. What kind of stress does the brace exert ? 

3. What kind of stress does each hinge exert ? 

4. Why are there two boards on the bottom .? 



FARM SHOP WORK — 9 



LESSON XXII 

CORN RACK 

Stock 

2 pes. 4'' X 6" X 20' I carnage bolt f '' X 7'' 

96 board feet pine i'' x 12'' i long king bolt 

22 linear feet 2'' X 4." 2 stirrup bolts 

I pc. hardwood 2" X 6" X 10" 2 bolts f '' X 10'' 

I lb. 6od. spikes 
I lb. lod. nails 

Tools 

Steel square Hammer 

Saw Brace and bit 

Operations 

1. Laying out the material. 

2. Assembling the rack. 

I. Laying out the material. — The two stringers are 
laid out 20^ long. La}^ out two uprights for the rear 
end from the 2'' x 4'' stock, each 4' long. Lay off and 
saw one end of each piece at an angle of 60 degrees. 
Lay out two uprights for the forward end 4' 3'' long, 
and saw one end of each piece at an angle of 60 degrees. 
Lay out two braces for the ends 2' 6'' long and saw 
the two ends of each at an angle of 60 degrees. Lay 
out two pieces 2'' X 4." x 2' 9'' and one piece 2'' X 4'' X 
3' lo'^ The flooring is all cut 6' long. 



CORN RACK 



119 



2. Assembling the rack. — In assembling the corn 
rack, bolt the two front ends of the stringers together 
with two f bolts. Spread the other two ends 3' apart, 
inside measurements, and hold in place by tacking a 
piece of the flooring across the ends. The stringers will 
be curved slightl}^ because of this springing apart of the 
ends. Straighten them out by tacking several pieces 







Fig. ioi. — Working Drawings of Corn Rack. 



of flooring on the under side of the stringers. At point 
a, \' from the rear end, spike the two uprights to the 
stringers. On top of these two uprights, nail a piece 
2" X \" X 6' so that it projects equal distances be- 
yond the uprights. Nail in place the two braces as 
shown in the drawing, spiking the lower ends to the 
upper edge of the stringers, and the upper ends to the 
uprights. At point h, 4' 3'' from the front end, spike 
a piece 2'' X 4'' X 2' ^" to the under side of the 
stringers with an equal length extending beyond each 



I20 WOODWORKING 

stringer. To the ends of this piece nail the lower ends 
of the forward uprights. To the upper ends of the 
uprights nail a piece ^" X \" X 6'. At point c spike 
a piece 2" X \" X 1' 9" across the stringers and on top 
of this, spike another similar piece in such a position 
that they will hold the front uprights in the same posi- 
tion as those in the rear; that is, at an angle of 60 de- 
grees with the stringers. Spike the uprights to these 
pieces by toenailing them from both sides. To the 
middle of the double crosspiece c fasten the bar e with 
a carriage bolt f X 7". 

The double crosspiece c is for the purposes of brac- 
ing the uprights, and to afford a fastening for one end 
of the bar e. This bar takes the place of the reach 
of the wagon and passes over the front hound and be- 
tween the sand board and axle, being held in that posi- 
tion by the king bolt which passes through the sand 
board, reach, axle, and stringers successively. The 
wheels and hounds of some wagons are larger than 
those on others, and some truck wagons have no 
hounds ; therefore it will be necessary to vary the 
distance between the ends of the stringers and the 
uprights according to the wagon to be fitted. 

Across the edges of both sets of uprights at d, d, d, 
d, dy dy nail strips i" X 4" X 6'. Lay the flooring and 
remove the strips tacked to the under side of the 
stringers. To the under side of the front end of the 
stringers nail a piece of hardwood 2" X 6" X 10'', and 
then through the middle of the piece and between the 
stringers bore a i'' hole for the king bolt. 6'' from the 
other ends of the stringers bore a \" hole for the stirrup 
bolts, which are to hook over the rear axle. 



CORN RACK 121 

To fit this rack in place first remove the reach and 
the front bolster, then fasten the rear end of the 
stringers under the rear axle of the wagon with the 
hind hound resting on the stringers, next slip the front 
hound between the stringers and the bar (e), the latter 
passing into the hole intended for the reach. The rear 
ends of the stringers are held to the axle by two 
stirrup bolts and the front ends to the front axle by a 
long king bolt. These bolts are described under Black- 
smithing. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are the stringers not laid parallel ? 

2. How will you determine where to place the racks at each end ? 

3. Why is the rack hung so low ? 



It 



LESSON XXIII 

CATTLE RACK 

Stock 

2 pes. pine or hemlock \" X 6" x 12' 5 lb. I2d. wire nails 
2 pes. pine or hemlock \" X 6'' x 10' 2 lb. 6od. wire nails 

2 pes. pine or hemlock \" x 6" x 2' 6'' 

3 pes. pine or hemlock i" X 6'' X 3' 

3 pes. pine or hemlock \" x 6" X 36I' 
18 pes. hardwood i'' X ^" X 3' 3' 
2 pes. hardwood i'' X 3" X 2' 9'' 
2 pes. hardwood i" X 2" X 1' ^" 
3 pes. pine x" x 4" X 3' 3" 
2 pes. pine 2'' X 4" X 5' 
2 pes. pine 2" X 6" x 3' 
2 pes. pine 2'' X 4" X 4' 6'' 
I pc. pine z" X 4" X 6' 9" 

Tools 

Steel square Saw 

Hammer Brace and bit 

Operations 

1. Laying out and sawing boards. 

2. Ripping strips. 

3. Nailing strips to boards. 

4. Laying out and sawing timbers for stanchion. 

5. Assembling stanchion. 

6. Making iron hooks. 

122 









'+ . 


rr 




^ 






^ 












K 










. 


i 




s^ 


. -i. -i'"^ 1 








' 


.f 






^ 






1 




. •'. -J. '\^ 1 








t 


\ 


-) 

■> 






. • 1 
























-, 


--J 












0-1 






-f- 


r^^' 








1 










'to 


1 










CM 


1 




-.e 


-^- 




1 




T 


'"d" 




.-.-:----. 




-Li 


^~ -—311 




<* 




Ja 








T 







V 




I 


' 



[23 



124 WOODWORKING 

1. Laying out and sawing boards. — Measure off and 
saw pine boards to the following dimensions : 

2 boards i'' X (y" X \^' 
2 boards \" X G' X lo' 
2 boards \" x6" X 2^6'' 

These boards are for the sides of the rack. For the end 
gate measure off three boards i^' X 6" X 36 J", also three 
pieces 2'' x ^" X 3' 3", and saw. 

2. Ripping strips. — The strips are made of hardwood, 
oak or elm preferred. Three 12-ft. boards G" wide and 
i" thick will do for all the strips. Rip out the follow- 
ing strips : 

18 strips 3' 3" long and 3'' wide 
2 strips 2' ^" long and 1" wide 
2 strips i' 3" long and 2" wide 

3. . Nailing strips to boards. — Locate the strips on the 
boards :it the distances shown in the working drawing, 
Fig. 102. Stagger the nails so as to not split the hard- 
wood strips. Drive the nails clear through and clinch 
on the inside. At e one short strip is nailed on the out- 
side of each side. At/ one strip is nailed on the inside 
of each side. At h one strip is nailed on the outside of 
each rack. The short strip e rests on the top edge of 
wagon box to hold front end gate of box. 

The short board g is placed on top of the bottom board 
to support the wagon seat. The strip h is single and on 
the outside because the stanchion is usually fastened at 
this place. The end gate is made according to Fig. 103, 
and is fastened in place with end-gate rods. 



CATTLE RACK 



125 



.::;! [:::n L^ 














" 
° 




" 
" 




1 


-<z- 




-^^ 




-^i 




° 
« 




^ 
" 






36i 







T 



a- 



Fig. 103. — Working Drawing of End Gate of Cattle Rack. 

(The holes for the lower end-gate rod are not shown. They should be bored at the 
proper height to admit the end-gate rod of the wagon box.) 



4. Laying out and sawing timbers for stanchion. — 
A stanchion is an arrangement of bars for fastening 
cattle in a stall by locking timbers around their necks 
so they cannot get away, and yet giving them consid- 
erable freedom of motion. In sawing the braces a, a^ 
you can save considerable lumber by laying them out 
in one piece instead of using two pieces each 4' 6'^ 
long. In this way you save the difference between 
6' <^" and 9'. The rest of the timbers are laid out as 
indicated. (See Fig. 102.) 

5. In assembling the stanchion, first nail the two 
outside pieces to the top and bottom crosspieces. The 
two braces a, a, are spiked to the bottom planks and to 
the two uprights. The two movable timbers hy by are 
fastened by spiking with one spike in the lower end of 



126 WOODWORKING 

each. The tops of these two members are held in place 
by a wooden peg placed in the holes bored through the 
tops. Bore the holes nearer the outside edges so as to 
make them stronger. 

6. Making iron hooks. — The stanchion is fastened 
to the bottom of the box and to the sides by iron hooks, 
which are described under the subject of Blacksmith- 
ing. 

The stanchion can be fastened any place along the 
box according to the size of the animal. If it happens 
to be very unruly, its head can be tied down with a 
rope passed through a hole bored in the bottom of the 
stanchion, and then tied. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is hardwood used for the strips instead of pine.? 

2. Why is a short strip used at e ? 

3. Why is a single strip used at h instead of a double one ? 

4. Why do you lay out the braces a^ a, as shown, from one piece 
instead of from two pieces ? 

5. Why should you nail on the braces a, a^ before the movable 
pieces ? 

6. Why do you bore the holes nearer the outside edges of the 
stanchions .? 



LESSON XXIV 

HOG COT 

Stock 

150 linear feet white pine or hemlock z" x ^' 

20 linear feet white pine or hemlock i" X 6'' 

21 linear feet white pine or hemlock 2" X 8" 
400 board feet sheathing 

5 lb. 2od. nails 

2 lb. 8d. nails 

I lb. lod. nails 

I doz. screws i|", No. 10, F. H. B. 

Tools 

Steel square Try-square Hammer Screwdriver 

Bevel Saw^ Block plane 

Operations 

1. Laying out and sawing floor joists. 

2. Laying out and sawing side pieces. 

3. Spiking side pieces to floor joists. 

4. Making the runners. 

5. Laying out and sawing the rafters. 

6. Nailing rafters in place. 

7. Cutting and nailing purlins in place. 

8. Laying out and nailing headers and trimmers. 

9. Nailing on flooring and roofing. 
10. Making the door. 

127 




128 



HOG COT 129 

1. Laying out and sawing floor joists. — Lay out and 

saw six pieces ^" X 4'' X "]' 8'' for the floor joists. Saw 
the ends square. 

2. Laying out and sawing the side pieces. — Lay out 
two pieces 2" X 8'' X 10' ^' for the side pieces. Notch 
each end ^' down from the top and 6" in from each 
end, as shown in Fig. 104. 

3. Spiking the side pieces to the floor joists. — As 
there are six joists and the cot is 9' ^' long, each 
space between the joists is 2o" . This gives a distance 
of 22" between the middle Hnes of the joists. Locate 
these spaces and spike through the side pieces into the 
ends of the floor joists with 2od. spikes. 

Locate the lower edges of the joists flush with the 
lower edges of the side pieces. 

4. Making the runners. — The runners are made of 
two pieces of 2" X ^" X 10' \" . The ends are rounded 
off by drawing an arc of a 

circle 2" in radius, holding ) c^ ) 

the two planks as shown in ^ ^ r. x? 

^ _ ^ Fig. 105. — Laying Out Ends of Run- 

Fig. 105, placing the point ners. 

of the compass at a. Repeat at the other end. 
Chisel down just outside the line, and finish with the 
block plane. Turn the floor upside down and spike 
the runners to the floor joists, locating them about &' 
from each side piece. 

5. Laying out and sawing the rafters. — The rafters 
slope at an angle of 60 degrees with the horizontal. 
The lower ends fit over the edge of the side pieces, 
and the ridgepole fits into the top. Figure 106 shows 
how the two ends of each rafter are cut. Lay out and 
saw. 



I30 



WOODWORKING 



6. Nailing rafters in place. 
— Spike the rafters to the side 
pieces. Then place the ridge- 
pole in place and spike from 
both sides. 

7. Cutting and nailing pur- 
30" lins in place. — A purlin 

is a timber placed hori- 
zontally to support raft- 

^J^° Working drawing of rafter cuts. etS. In the hog COt it 

supports roof boards instead 

of rafters, and is spiked to the 

rafters. The drawing shows 

where to locate the purlins. 

8. Laying out and nailing headers and trimmers. — 

The ends of the headers are to be cut at an angle of 60 

degrees, as shown in Fig. 106, so as to fit the rafters. 

There is one for ^ ___ ._£_ 




)) 



1. 



GO'' 



Ends of each header. 
Fig. 106. — Rafter and Header. 



each end of the cot. 
The two trimmers 
are placed at one 
end for the door. 

9. Nailing on 
flooring and roof- 
ing. — The flooring 
is nailed across the 
floor joists. The 
roofing runs from 
the ridge down to 
the side pieces, be- 
ing nailed to the 
ridge, purlin, and 



J -10 






]5 



Fig. 107. 



Working Drawing of Door of 
Hog Cot. 



HOG COT 131 

side pieces with 8d. nails. The roof is made water- 
tight by battens, which are 2" strips nailed over the 
cracks between the roof boards. 




Fig. ioS. — Framework of Hog Cot. 

Saw the battens from the same lumber used for the 
roof. Nail the sheathing on the two ends, leaving an 
opening 3' x 2' at one end for the door. 

10. Making the door. — The door opening is 3' high 
and 2' wide, but the door is to be \" shorter and z" 
narrower than the opening, so that it will swing in and 
out easily and allow the entry of air. 

Saw the boards 3' long and fasten them together 
with cleats nailed and clinched about 2" from each end. 



132 WOODWORKING 

The door is hung by hinges at the top, so that the hog 
can go either in or out by simply pushing against the 
door. The making of the hinges is described under 
Blacksmithing. 

QUESTIONS 

1. If the ends of the floor joists are not sawed square, what will 
be the result ? 

2. In chiseling the ends of the runners, why do you begin at 
the side and chisel towards the end, instead of the reverse ? 

3. How will you fit the roof boards so as to shed water at the 
ridge ? 

4. Of what special use is the lower purlin ? 

5. Why is the door made smaller than the opening? 

6. Why is the door hung from the top rather than from the side ? 



LESSON XXV 

WAGON BOX 

Stock 

35 board feet matched oak boards 4'' wide and I" thick 
14 Hnear feet oak strips 2" wide and |" thick 

6 Hnear feet oak strips ^" wide and I" thick 
14 hnear feet oak strips 2" wide and 2" thick 
28 hnear feet whitewood i^" wide and |" thick 
18 bolts 2\" long, I" diameter, and washers (carriage) 
16 bolts 2\" long, f" diameter, and washers (carriage) 

9 doz. screws 2", No. 10, F. H. B. 

Tools 

Steel square Saw Brace and bit 

Try-square Plane Wrench 

Rule Screwdriver Countersink 

Operations 

1. Laying out and sawing crosspieces. 

2. Laying out and sawing flooring and fastening to cross- 

pieces. 

3. Boring holes in crosspieces. 

4. Laying out, planing, and sawing side boards and end gates. 

5. Laying out cleats, boring holes, and fastening to side 

boards and end gates. 

6. Fastening side boards to flooring. 

7. Fitting end-gate rods in place. 

8. Fastening foot rest in place. 

FARM SHOP WORK — lO I 33 



134 



WOODWORKING 



I. Laying out and sawing crosspieces. — There are 
four pieces under the floor of the wagon box. Each of 
the two end pieces is 2" X 2" X 3' 6'', and the two 
middle crosspieces are 2" X 2" X \' . 




Fig. 109. — Working Drawings of Wagon Box. 

Unless the crosspieces come in the rough, it will be 
unnecessary to do any planing. 

2. Laying out flooring. — The flooring consists of ^' 
tongued and grooved oak boards \" thick, and should 
be sawed 9' ^" long. When the boards have been sawed 
the proper length, they can be laid. Mark a center 
line on each crosspiece and 2" from this on one side 
square a Hne across each crosspiece. Lay the cross- 
pieces the proper distance apart, as shown in the draw- 
ing. There will be one crosspiece at each end, and one 



WAGON BOX 135 

3' "jV' from each end. This places the two middle cross- 
pieces \' %" apart, inside measurements. Lay the edge 
of the middle board against the marks on the cross- 
pieces and fasten in place with one screw near its edge, 
having first bored and countersunk the holes. 

When this has been done on all crosspieces, with the 
steel square, square up all crosspieces and put in the 
second screw in each crosspiece, staggering the screws, 
and placing them about \" from the edges. The 
screw holes should be countersunk deep enough so that 
the screw heads sink about -^^" below the surface of 
the flooring. 

Place the second board in place and drive it up 
tight, using a waste piece of flooring to take the ham- 
mer blows and protect the edge of the tongue or groove. 
It may be necessary to use clamps to hold the flooring 
in place while it is being fastened to the crosspiece. 

Continue this process until you come to the last board, 
which will extend out too far ; draw it up in place, but 
do not fasten it. 

Then proceed on the other side until you come to the 
last board. Measure from the center of the middle 
board 1^7'' to each edge at each end, and mark on the 
two outer boards. By means of a straightedge draw 
lines from end to end of the outer boards, showing where 
they are to be sawed and planed. When finished, 
fasten in place to the crosspieces. 

3. Boring holes in crosspieces. — The side boards 
are fastened to the flooring by screws and iron strips. 
The iron strips have a round tang or bolt-like end 
threaded which passes through the crosspieces and is 
fastened by nuts and washers on the under side. The 



136 



WOODWORKING 



Hlh 



holes are f '' and are bored close to the edge of the outer 
board of the floor. The foot boards are placed on the 
ends of the two middle crosspieces. They are 4" 
wide and are tacked in place with 
their outer edges flush with the 
ends of the crosspieces. The 
irons that go down through these 
holes are fastened by two nuts 
and washers, one above the foot 
board and one below the cross- 
piece, as shown in Fig. no. 



^^mmmm^^^^mm^^^^mmk 




Fig. 1 10. — Irons of Foot Board. 



4. The side boards and end gates are made of white- 
wood and should be surfaced on both sides. The ends 
and edges should be planed square and straight. 

5. The cleats are of oak and are fastened to the side 
boards and end gates by f carriage bolts, nuts, and 
washers. 

The cleats are 14" long and 2" wide by f thick. At 
the ends they are held in place by carriage clamps 
while the holes are being bored and the bolts fastened 
in place. The bolts pass through the iron strips on the 
outside of the side boards. Other cleats are fastened 
i'' from the end cleats to hold the end gates in place. 
Square a line across the side boards i'' from the inner 
edge of the end cleats and lay these cleats along this 
line. Hold with clamps and bore the holes for the bolts. 



WAGON BOX 



137 



These bolts do not pass through iron strips. 3'' from 
the ends of the end gates, square Hues across and fasten 
cleats as before. 

6. Fastening side boards to flooring. — After fasten- 



• ^'k6> 



ing all irons in place, turn the box over 
and at intervals of 6'' drive 2" screws 
down through the flooring into the 
edges of the side 
boards. 

7. Fitting end- 
gate rods in 
place. — Fit the 
end gates in 
place and bore 
f holes for the 
end-gate rods 
which are used 
to hold the side 

boards together. A special form of 
washerismade which can be fastened yig. m. — Foot Rest of 
permanently to the side boards with Wagon Box. 

small screws ; one of them is thicker and is threaded to 
fit the end of the end-gate rod which screws into it. 

8. Fastening the foot rest in place. — The iron braces 
for the foot rest can now be fastened in place with two 
of the bolts used on the cleats of the front end gate, and 
the 4'' strip of oak bolted to these braces. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is the flooring laid from the center rather than from one 
side ? 

2. Of what use are the iron strips on the side boards ? 

3. Why should the screws in the flooring be countersunk .? 




LESSON XXVI 



WORK BENCH 







Stock 






Bench top . 




2 pes. maple or hard 


pine 2" X 12'' X 6' 


Legs . . . 




4 pes. white pine 


2" X 4" X 


32- 


Crosspleces 




2 pes. white pine 


2" X 4" X 


23'' 


Braces . . 




4 pes. white pine 


l''X 2''X 


2' 6'' 


Long brace 




I pc. white pine 


i''x 3''x 


5' 


Apron . . 




I pc. white pine 


l^'X 8''X 


6' 


Vise. — Jaw 




I pc. maple 


2'' X 6" X 


24'' 


Brace 


s 


2 pes. white pine 


l"X2''X 


2' 6'' 


Cross 


pie( 


:e 2 pes. white pine 


I''X2''X 


18'' 


I carpenter's 


be 


nch screw i|" 






8 nails 2od. 










lo nails lod. 










30 nails 8d. 










8 screws 3'', 


No 


. 14, F. H. B. 






4 screws 1", 


No 


. 8, F. H. B. 

Tools 






Try-squa 


re 


Saw 


Screwdriver 


Rule 




Plane 


Chisel 




Bevel sqi 


lan 


J Brace and bit 


Hammer 
Clamps 





1. Laying out 

2. Sawing to 1 

3. Laying out 

4. Sawing the 

5. Laying out 



Operations 

length of legs and crosspieces. 
ength. 

the mitered ends of braces, 
mitered ends, 
the halved joints. 
138 



WORK BENCH 139 

6. Cutting the halved joints. 

7. Assembling the bench. 

8. Laying out screw hole and mortises of vise. 

9. Boring the screw hole. 

10. Cutting the mortises of the vise. 

11. Laying out braces and crosspieces. 

12. Sawing the miters. 

13. Assembling vise. 

14. Fitting vise to bench. 

15. Inserting bench stop. 

I. Laying out length of legs and crosspieces. ^ The 

height of the bench is 36'' ; and as the top planks are 
2" thick, and the crosspieces on top of the legs are 2" 
thick, the legs are 32'' long. 




Fig. 112. — Working Drawing of Work Bench. 

Square across the ends of the legs. Do the same 
with the tv^o crosspieces, which should be 23'' long, or 
\" shorter than the bench is wide. 

2. Sawing to length. — As there is no need of planing 
the stock that goes into the legs and crosspieces, it will 
be necessary to take pains in sawing the ends square. 



140 



WOODWORKING 




3. Laying out the mitered ends of braces. — The 
braces between the legs are laid out at right angles to 
each other, and so the ends will fit on to the legs at an 
angle of 45 degrees. Set the bevel at 45 degrees by 
placing the beam against the edge of the carpenter's 

square, and set the blade at 
equal distances on the tongue 
and blade. Be sure that the 
four braces are the same length. 
Square down from the miter 
lines across the edges. 

4. Sawing the mitered ends. 
— It is- more difficult to saw 
down a miter than square 
across, so take particular pains 
to follow the lines. 

5. Laying out the halved 
joints. — Each pair of braces 

should be halved together at the middle. The halved 
joint should be marked out at right angles with the edges 
and lined down across the edges ; then gauged between 
these lines halfway from surface to surface. 

6. Cutting the halved joints. — Saw down inside the 
lines, holding the saw so that the teeth on one side just 
split the line. Saw to the gauged lines. Chisel out the 
block as described in Lesson IL 

7. Assembling the bench. — In assembling the bench 
nail the crosspieces on to the top of the legs with 2od. 
spikes. In nailing, be sure to stagger the nails, which 
means that they should not be placed parallel to the 
outer edges. Fig. 114 shows the correct and incorrect 
method. If the tops of the legs have been sawed 



Fig. 113. 



End View of Work 
Bench. 



WORK BENCH 



141 




correct incorrect 

Fig. 114. — Correct and Incor- 
rect Method of Placing the 

Nails. 



square, the crosspieces, when nailed in place, will make 

right angles with the legs, and the edge B will be flush 

with the edge C. The second 

step is to nail the braces in 

place. The braces are fitted 

together by the halved joint 

and fastened with two screws ; 

they are then placed inside the 

legs and the ends nailed in 

place. The next step is to 

fasten the legs on to the top . , 1 

of the bench. Place the planks on the floor with the 

better side down ; hold them together with two long 

clamps, one at each end. G' from each end place the 

legs upside down, as 
in Fig. 115. The 
screw holes are then 
located and bored. 
Be sure to stagger 
the screws. 

The vise should 

IIS. — Fastening Legs to Bench Top. j^^ planed smOOth 

and squared up according to the directions given in 

Lesson I. 

8. Laying out the screw hole and mortises of vise. — 
Place the better end at the top of the vise. G' down 
from the top of the vise square a Hne across the surface, 
and 8" from the top square another line across. From 
the points where these lines meet the edges, square 
across the edges. As the crosspieces are to be let into 
these mortises, they should be gauged to a depth equal 
to the thickness of the crosspieces. 



^ 



^ 




Fig. 



142 



WOODWORKING 




At the lower end of the jaw hne, lay off an angle of 
45 degrees from the corner A, Fig. 116, using the bevel. 
-^ With the bevel still in place, 

measure perpendicularly 2" 
and draw another 45-degree 
line through this point par- 
allel to the first. Square 

Fig. X16.- Mortise Cut AT LOWER ^^rOSS the SUtface from the 

End of Vise. points where these two lines 

meet the corner, and draw similar lines on the other edge. 

As the braces that are to be let into these mortises 
are the same thickness as the crosspieces, these mortises 
should be gauged to the same depth as the others. The 
screw hole is laid out in the middle of the width of the 
jaw with the center of the hole j" below the upper end. 

9. Boring the screw hole. — The screw is i\'' in diam- 
eter and has a cast iron washer near the handle. This 
washer is to be let into the wood until the surface is 
flush with the surface of the jaw, so it will be necessary 
to bore a hole the size of the washer, and to a depth 
equal to the thickness of the washer before boring the 
hole for the screw. If the small hole were bored first, 
there would be no 
wood to hold the 
screw and guide 
the bit. (See Fig. 
117.) Because of 
the spherical pro- 
jection back of the washer, it will be necessary to 
gouge out a recess deep enough to let the washer down 
flush. In boring these large holes, use an expansion 
bit. When the cutter has been set at the proper 




Fig. 117. — Hole for Bench Screw. 



WORK BENCH 143 

distance, be sure that the set screw is tight, or the spur 
of the cutter will draw it out farther and farther, in- 
creasing the diameter of the hole as you go through. 

When the washer is fitted to place, mark the screw 
holes and bore with a gimlet bit of the proper size. 

10. Cutting the mortises of the vise. — In cutting the 
mortises follow the directions given in the first part of 
the lesson. 

11. Laying out braces and crosspieces. — Lay off 
2' "]" for the two braces and miter the ends in the same 
way as the miters of the cross braces of the legs were 
laid out, except that the 45-degree angle in these braces 
should be on the same edge of the piece rather than 
on the opposite edges. For the crosspieces, lay out 
1 8'' in length and miter one end only. 

12. Sawing the miters. — Follow the directions given 
for sawing the miters of the cross braces of the legs. 

13. Assembling the vise. — Fasten the braces in place 
on the vise and then the crosspieces. Then fasten the 
crosspieces to the braces. In order to fit the vise to the 
bench, it will be necessary to bore a hole through the 
leg at a height equal to the distance from the top of 
the vise jaw to the center of the screw. On the inner 
side of this leg over the hole fasten the nut that comes 
with the screw. 

Two slots must be cut in the apron of the bench to 
accommodate the crosspieces. Measure 6" down from 
the top of the bench and locate one slot on each side of 
the leg. The slots are \'' wide and are cut up from the 
bottom edge of the apron a distance of \" . 

14. Fitting vise to bench. — The vise can now be 
placed where it belongs in the bench. 



144 WOODWORKING 

15. Inserting bench stop. — A bench stop is an arrange- 
ment of metal or wood at the front of the bench, against 
which boards are placed for surfacing. In this case the 
stop is of wood, squared and about ^" long by i" square, 




Fig. 118. — Work Bench Assembled. 

made of some hard wood. Metal bench stops can be 
bought, but unless one uses the bench a great deal, 
the wooden stop will answer as well. Bore a hole with 
2L 1" bit through the top of the bench 8'' from the end 
and 4'' from the side of the bench, and chisel it out 
square down through the top and crosspiece over the 
leg. 

The stop must fit tight so that it will stay where it is 
wanted and yet can be driven up or down. 



WORK BENCH 145 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are the crosspieces cut i" shorter than the width of 
the bench ? 

2. Why are the crosspieces spiked on top of the legs rather than 
the legs spiked to the ends of the crosspieces ? 

3. If the tops of the legs were not sawed square, how would it 
affect the bench ? 

4. What advantage is there in halving the braces at the middle 
over fastening them together without halving ? 

5. What advantage is there in staggering the nails ? 

6. Is there any advantage in fastening the braces inside the legs 
instead of fastening them to the edges of the legs ? 

7. Why are the legs fastened to the top from underneath by 
screws rather than from above ? 

8. Why is the larger hole in the vise bored before the smaller one ? 

9. Why is the bench stop of wood rather than of metal ? 



LESSON XXVII 

TOOL CHEST 

Stock 

30 board feet oak f' X G' 
8 board feet bass or pine \" X 12" 

2 doz. screws f '', No. 6, F. H. B. 
7 doz. screws \\" , No. 8, F. H. B. 

3 butt hinges, iron, 3" 
I lb. brads \\" 
Stain, filler, and shellac 



Carpenter's square 

Try-square 

Sandpaper 



Tools 

Bevel 

Saw 

Plane 

Operations 



Screwdriver 
Brace and bit 
Chisel 



1. Laying out. 

2. Squaring up and doweling. 

3. Squaring and planing bottom, sides, ends. 

4. Assembling the box. 

5. Mitering strips for the bottom. 

6. Cutting halved joints for the top. 

7. Grooving the top. 

8. Mitering strips for the top. 

9. Attaching the top to the box. 

10. Making trays. 

11. Making slides. 

12. Finishing. 

146 




147 



148 



WOODWORKING 



I. Laying out. — In laying out the material, one 
must keep in mind the methods of construction. 

In constructing a tool chest, the top is made to come 
down over the sides to keep out the rain. It is made of 
a framework that will not shrink or warp, and the panel 
in the top is kept in place by a groove that will not allow 
it to check or warp, as it would if it were fastened by 
glue or screws. The sides, ends, and bottom are too 



'"p- 



m<w//:w//////////m 



Jecfi 



cd 




Fig. 120. — Assembled Tool Chest. 



wide to be made of a single board, and so are made from 
glued-up boards, each 6'' wide, and the glued joints 
reenforced by dowel pins. Dowel pins are short, round 
pegs driven and glued into holes bored in the edges of 
the pieces to be glued, thereb}^ strengthening them. 
The sides are fastened to the ends by screws. For the 
bottom saw off three boards each 2' 5'' long; for each 
side, three boards each 2' 6f long ; for each end, three 
boards each i' 5'' long. 

The four strips of the framework for the top are f 
thick and ^" wide, with a rabbet cut on one edge. 

The panel of the top is cut with a groove to fit the 



TOOL CHEST 



149 




Fig. 121. — Halving the Corners of tiii: Top. 



tongue of the rabbet in the frame. The rabbet and 
groove are shown in Fig. 120 at A. The method of 
halving the 
pieces together 
after cutting 
the rabbet is 
shown in Fig. 
1 2 1, which is an 
illustration of 
the pieces ready 
to assemble. 
Figure 122 is a 
working draw- 
ing of the strips halved with the rabbet cut. It is diffi- 
cult to lay out the strips for the top, and so attention 
is called to this in order that you may pay strict atten- 
tion to the directions. First, Lay out the halved joints 

at the ends by squaring 
across the surface 4'' from 
the ends on each of the 
four pieces. (It is ex- 
pected that the pieces have 
first been cut the right 
length and width.) This 
surface will be the under 
surface of the longer strips, 
which are the side strips, 
and the upper surface of 
the shorter, or end strips. 
Square across the edges 
from these Hnes. Set the gauge at one half the thick- 
ness of the strips, and gauge the edge of the longer strips 

FARM SHOP WORK — II 



J 



[22. — Working Drawing of 
Strips Halved. 



Fig. 



150 WOODWORKING 

with the guide resting against the under surface, which 
is the surface across which was gauged the 4'' hnes. 
Then gauge across the ends and down each edge to the 
4'' Hne. Next gauge the ends of the shorter strips, hold- 
ing the guide against the upper surface, which is the 
surface across which was squared the 4'' Hnes. This is 
the usual method of gauging for halved joints, and in- 
sures the same thickness of material to be removed in the 
longer strips as that of the tongue in the shorter strips. 

Second, The rabbet can be laid out with the gauge 
set at J" by holding the guide against the upper sur- 
faces of all four strips, then holding the guide against 
the inner edges, and scribing along the under surfaces 
of the four strips. 

Third, The panel must be glued up and doweled 
before it can be laid out. In laying out, square up one 
end and one edge, lay off the length, 2' i'\ and saw and 
plane square. Then lay off the width izj'', and plane. 
Set the gauge at \" and gauge around the four edges 
with the guide against the upper surface. Then set the 
gauge at f and gauge around the four edges with the 
guide against the same surface. 

2. Squaring up and doweling. — Saw the boards 
for the bottom as laid out. Plane the edges perfectly 
straight and square with the surfaces. 

Test the straightness of the edges, also test them with 
the try-square for squareness. When one edge is fin- 
ished, place two witness marks on it to show this. Then 
plane one edge of the second board in the same way, 
and test it by' placing it on the finished edge of the 
first board and look at the crack towards the light 
to see if there are any points where the light comes 



TOOL CHEST 



51 



through. If the edges fit perfectly, no Hght will come 
through, but generally there will be a crack at one or 
both ends, due to the fact that you have not been care- 
ful enough to hold the plane level in starting and finish- 
ing the stroke. You can prevent this trouble by press- 
ing down hard on the knob of the plane in starting the 
stroke, and down on the handle in finishing the stroke. 
When the edges fit so far as their straightness is con- 
cerned, then test them for squareness. Place one on 
the other and test the surfaces with a straightedge or 
steel square. If the edges are square, the surfaces will 
be in line. 

When the boards are squared up, then locate and 
bore the dowel holes. It does not matter just where 
they are located in the edge, but they must be located 
in exactly the same places with reference to each other. 

Hold the two edges that 

have been fitted in the vise, 

as in Fig. 123, and locate one 

hole ^" from each end and 

one in the center; square 

across the edges at these 

points, and with the gauge 

set at one half the thickness 

of the boards, gauge across 

the lines, holding the guide 

against the outer surface of 

each board ; then the boards can be folded together so 

as to fit. In boring for the dowel pins, use a \" bit, 

and bore all the holes the same depth. In order to do 

this it will be necessary to use some kind of a bit gauge 

or to count the number of turns of the brace it takes to 




Locating Dowel Holes. 



1^2 WOODWORKINCt 

bore to the required depth. A bit gauge can be pur- 
chased or one can be made that will answer the pur- 
pose just as well unless a large number of holes of 
different depths are to be bored. Figure 
124 illustrates one that can be used in 
this case. A square block of wood the 
length of the bit when in the brace is 
bored from end to end and cut off so as 
to expose just i J'' from the cutting lip of 
Fig. 124. — a Bit the bit to the lower end of the block. The 
dowel pin will extend i'^ into each board, 
but the extra \" is bored to allow plenty of room for 
the tight fit of the edges, and any surplus glue that 
cannot get out. 

Be careful not to measure from the end of the screw 
or the spur, but from the cutting lip. Dowel bits are 
used when a good deal of doweling is done. They are 
shorter than the others and so are easier to operate, 
but they have no other advantages. The operations 
thus far described are to be repeated for the sides and 
the ends and top panel. 

Dowel pins should always be of some hard, close- 
grained wood, as maple or birch, and can be purchased 
at a planing mill, but it is well to make them, unless 
you are using a great number. They should not fit 
so tight as to force all of the glue out of the sides of 
the holes. Those purchased are grooved along the 
sides for this purpose, but when made by hand, they 
can be left slightly irregular. 

Rip a strip of maple or birch about 2' long and 
square ; plane down to f square, and then plane off 
the four corners, making it eight sided. As it will be 



Iff 




TOOL CHEST i53 

difficult to plane the corners of so small a strip, you can 
use a board that will hold the strip true while planing; 
such a board is shown in Fig. 125. Select two pieces of 
pine, and gauge down one 
edge and one adjacent sur- 
face ¥' ; chamfer down to 

° • 1 U 1 Fig. 125. — Board for Holding 

these Imes with the plane. g^Rip while planing. 

When these two chamfers 

are placed together, they form a right angle. Fasten 
the two pieces together with screws near the top, and 
bore a f' hole near one end. Into this drive a hard- 
wood dowel pin so that it comes flush with the top 
edges of the board. 

Hold this board in the vise and place the square strips 
in the groove when planing off" the corners. The peg 
answers the purposes of the dog in the bench. It is not 
necessary or advisable to make the dowel pins perfectly 
round, but leave them eight sided and a trifle large for 
the holes, large enough so that they will have to be driven 
in place with a mallet. The eight corners will then fit 
the hole very tightly, and the eight sides will leave 
enough room for the glue to fasten the pin in the hole 
and for any surplus glue to escape. 

When all the boards have been fitted with dowels, 
spread the glue on the edges of one board and into the 
dowel holes ; drive the pins in place ; spread the glue 
on the other edge and into the holes; and drive the second 
board up against the edge of the first by placing a block 
of waste lumber on one edge and driving with the mallet 
so as not to mar the edge. Then glue on the third 
board in Hke manner, and place in the long clamps. 
Before clamping up tight, place strips on upper and 



154 



WOODWORKING 



under surfaces near the ends and hold in place with two 
carriage or wooden clamps at each end. Then draw the 
boards up tight with the long clamps. Be careful to 
place waste stock between the clamps and the edges 
of the boards, otherwise the edges would be marred by 
the clamps. Set aside for several hours to dry. 

3. Squaring and planing bottom, sides, and ends. — 
When the bottom, sides, and ends are glued up and dry, 
they must be surfaced on both sides and squared up to 
the dimensions shown in the drawings. After sur- 
facing both sides, finish the outside with sandpaper. 

4. Assembling the box. — The assembling of the box 
will test your workmanship. If you have not been 
careful in the measuring and squaring up, it will be nec- 
essary to do some trimming in order to make the box 
square and a good fit. When the bottom, sides, and 
ends are finished, they should be assembled. Fasten 
the sides on to the ends with screws i|''. No. 8. Bore 
the holes and countersink according to directions given 
in previous lessons. 

Next fit the bottom in place and fasten with screws. 

5. Mitering the strips for the bottom. — The strips 
for the bottom cannot be laid out until the box is as- 
sembled, as the exact dimensions will not be known until 
then. Surface and square up the 1" strips. Then set 
the bevel square at 45 degrees and scribe one end of 
each of the four pieces ; square across the inner surface 
from the point where the 45-degree line meets the inner 
surface ; and saw so as to split the lines. Test the miter 
with the bevel square and trim with the block plane. 

Lay the strip where it belongs on the box, and very 
carefully set the inside edge of the miter already cut on 



TOOL CHEST 155 

the corner, and scribe the other corner so as to get the 
length of the piece accurately. From this line lay out 
the second miter and saw as before. Fasten this strip 
in place with screws, and lay out the strip on the oppo- 
site side in the same manner, and fasten it in place. 
The two remaining strips can be fitted in place more 
accurately than if they had been fitted around the box 
instead of in pairs. 

6. Cutting the halved joints for the top. — The top 
has already been laid out and should now be sawed and 
planed according to the lay out. 

Saw the halved joints, ripping down to the shoulder 
first and then crosscutting the shoulder. If the joints 
do not fit nicely, trim them down with a broad chisel 
and block plane, planing across the grain and chiseling 
the part next the shoulder that cannot be reached by 
the plane. 

7. Grooving the top. — In cutting the groove or rab- 
bet, workmen usually use a special form of plane called 
by various names according to 
the use it is intended for. But 
it is possible to cut the rabbet 
with nothing but the chisel and 
mallet. Chisel down nearly to 
the line, as shown in Fig. 126, 
and trim with a broad chisel 

down to the lines from both the Fig. 126. — Cutting Rabbet 
•1 -I , P /-T-v, WITH A Chisel. 

edge and the surface. 1 he 

groove extends |'' past the shoulder at each end. Glue 
the corner made by one side and one end, and fasten 
with I'' screws from the under side. Then glue the 
corner made by the other side and end, and fasten in the 




156 WOODWORKING 

same way. Do not assemble all four pieces until the 
panel has been made and is ready to put in place. 
Groove the edges and ends of the panel with the chisel 
in the same way as the frame was grooved, but the 
groove in this case is in the middle of the edges instead 
of to one side. Cut the groove \" and trim the sides, 
or cheeks, with a broad chisel. 

Fit the panel into one corner, and then fit the other 
corner in place on the other side ; when a good fit is 
assured, glue the two remaining halved joints in the 
same manner as the first pair, but holding them to- 
gether tightly with the long clamps. Do not glue 
the panel in place, as its shrinking would cause it to 
crack. The tongue and groove will hold it securely 
from warping, allowing it to shrink and expand with- 
out cracking. 

8. Mitering the strips for the top. — If the top has 
been made according to the dimensions on the drawings, 
it will extend over the sides of the box i" on each side 
and over the ends the same distance. Four strips each 
i'' wide and ^ thick are to be fastened to the under- 
side of this overhang of the top. These strips must be 
fitted so as to fit tight around the box, and are to be 
mitered at the corners. Lay out and cut just as the 
bottom strips were. Fasten to the top by screws put 
down through the top into the strips. (See B, Fig. 120.) 
Underneath these strips are four others the same size 
fastened to the box, and they act as a shoulder on which 
fall the top strips. {A, Fig. 119.) 

The mitered corners should be fastened with two 2" 
brads from each side. These strips can be fastened 
on with round-head screws if desired. They are more 



TOOL CHEST 157 

expensive than the flat ones, but they improve the 
appearance of the chest. 

9. Attaching the top. — Fasten on the top with three 
butt hinges ^" long screwed on the top strips, and put 
a hasp on the front strips in the middle. 

A chain should be fastened to the inside of the box 
and the underside of the cover, so the box can be opened 
and remain so without holding the cover. 

10. Making trays. — The two trays are for the pur- 
pose of holding the smaller tools, such as bits, files, 
scrapers, and screwdriv- 
ers. They are parti- 
tioned off as shown in 
Fig. 127. The top tray 
should be 2' 4^'' long and 
8" wide, and 3'' deep 
(outside measurements), 
and made of soft wood 

\'' thick. The lower tray ^^^ 'x27.-Tray oe Tool Chest. 

should be i^' shorter and 

the same width and depth. Nail on the sides to the 

ends and the partitions, then nail on the bottom. 

11. Making slides. — The slides on which the trays 
rest should be as long as the chest is wide (inside meas- 
urements), and made of two pieces of 
Y' pine, one piece 6'' wide and the 
other 3'' wide, as in Fig. 128. The 

Fig. 128^- Slide on ^// ^^^- J^ ^^^\^^ ^^ ^^^ ^// ^^- ^J^J^ 
WHICH Tray Rests. -^ ^ ^ 

one edge flush, and the whole is 
screwed to the ends of the chest 3'' down from the upper 
edge, as shown in Section on ab, Fig. 119. 

12. Finishing. — The subject of wood finishing is 




? 



158 WOODWORKING 

taken up in another part of the book, and the directions 
are not to be repeated here. The chest may be stained 
with some dark color and filled with a filler of the same 
color, then covered with a coat of orange shellac, which 
should be sanded down, and then finally covered with a 
coat or two of spar varnish. 

Handles can be added if desired. 



QUESTIONS 

1. What are the requisites of a good tool chest ? 

2. What are the advantages of doweHng a glued joint ? 

3. What is the difference between a rabbet and a groove ? 

4. In halving the corners, why do you rest the guide against 
opposite surfaces ? 

5. Why are witness marks placed on surfaces that are finished ? 

6. What precautions should you take in jointing up edges of 
boards ? 

7. Why do you gauge from opposite surfaces of the boards 
when locating dowel holes ? 

8. Why should dowel pins not fit the holes too tight ? 

9. How can you protect the edges of boards from being marred 
by the mallet or clamps ? 

10. What advantages do the mitered joints have over the butt 
joints ? What disadvantages ? 

11. Why is the lower tray shorter than the upper tray ? 



LESSON XXVIII 



TIMBER 



Classes of trees. — Trees are divided into two classes, 
— broadleaf trees and needleleaf trees. Since most 
of the broadleaf trees have hard wood, this class is 
known quite generally as hardwoods ; and since most of 
the needleleaf trees have soft wood, this group is known 
as-softwoods. 



Broadleaf Trees 


Needleleaf Trees 


Oak 


Mahogany 


Pine 


Ash 


Hickory 


Hemlock 


Butternut 


Elm 


Cedar 


Maple 


Basswood 


Fir 


Birch 


Yellow poplar 


Spruce 


Beech 


Cottonwood 


Tamarack 


Walnut 







Manner of growth. — All trees, except the palms, 
add each year one layer of wood or annual ring to their 
trunks. Each annual ring consists of two parts, — an 
inner layer called spring wood and an outer layer called 
summer wood. The spring wood is more porous than 
the summer wood and is lighter in color and weight. 
Being more compact, the summer wood gives more 
strength to the tree than does the spring wood. Ra- 
diating from the center, and cutting across the annual 
rings at right angles, are thin plates of wood, called 

159 



i6o 



WOODWORKING 



medullary ra3^s. In several species of trees the medul- 
lary rays are so thick that they may easily be seen in 
cross section as radial lines running across the annual 
rings. 

Heartwood and sapwood. — As a tree grows in size, 
adding a layer each year just under the bark, the inner 
layers become denser and darker in color. These rings 
are called heartwood. The lighter, outer layers of wood 
through which the sap flows are the sapwood of a tree. 
Usually the heartwood is better for all purposes, be- 
cause it is more compact and not so full of decompos- 
able sap, though the sapwood of some trees, such as 
hickory and ash, is better than the heartwood. 

Hardness of wood. — By hardness we mean the 
abilit}^ to resist pressure. It requires greater pressure 
to drive a chisel to a given depth in a hard wood than in 
a soft wood. The thickness of the cell walls and the 
smallness of the cell cavities determine the hardness. 
Soft woods hold glue much better than hard woods. 
Before gluing, hard woods should always be scratched 
or scored. 

TABLE OF HARDNESS 



Very Hard 


Hard 


Fairly Hard 


Soft 


Maple 


Soft maple 


Gum 


Butternut 


White oak 


Red oak 


Chestnut 


Basswood 


Osage orange 


Ash 


Poplar 


Redwood 


Rosewood 


Elm 


Hemlock 


Cedar 


Holly 


Hickory 


Norway pine 


Cottonwood 


Ebony 


Cherry 


Tamarack 


White pine 


Cocobola 


Birch 


Sycamore 


Spruce 


Lignum vitae 


Hard pine 







TIMBER l6l 

Strength of wood. — Strength is the abihty to resist 
any kind of stress or strain. Some woods stand more 
strain ofpuUingand compressing than an equal weight 
of wrought iron. Thoroughly dry wood is much stronger 
than green wood. 

Elasticity of wood. — Elasticity is the capacity of 
wood to regain its former shape after being bent and 
twisted out of shape. Hickory is the most elastic of 
woods. It is used in making ax handles, forks, hoes, 
bows, fishing-rod butts, and golf sticks. 

Toughness of wood. — By toughness we mean 
strength and flexibility. Woods named in the order of 
their toughness are hickory, ironwood, rock elm, birch, 
oak, ash. Because of this quality, hickory is used for 
the spokes, and elm for the hubs of wheels. 

Weight of wood. — The woody substance is heavier 
than water, so if timber were all woody substance 
it would sink in water. It floats because of the air 
spaces in the cells. The difi^erence in weight of the 
species of wood is due to the proportion of air spaces 
to woody fiber. A cubic foot of white pine weighs 24 
pounds, while the same volume of white oak weighs 
50 pounds. 

Shrinkage of wood. — When moisture evaporates 
from wood, the wood shrinks in size. As the wood is 
not uniform in structure, there will be more rapid shrink- 
age in some portions of it than in others, and warping 
results. Shrinkage is greatest in the direction of the 
rings, less in the radial direction, and least in the longi- 
tudinal direction. Thick-walled cells will shrink more 
than thin-walled cells ; therefore, summer wood shrinks 
more than spring wood. The medullary rays shrink 



l62 



WOODWORKING 




Fig. i2g. — Checks at 
THE End of a Log 
Partly Dry. 



very little in the radial direction ; therefore, as the wood 
on each side shrinks, it pulls away from the medullary 
rays, causing checks and splits. The 
outside layers of a log will check be- 
cause they dry out faster than the 
inner layers (Fig. 129). When the 
entire log is dry (Fig. 130), these 
checks close up somewhat. When a 
log is sawed into boards, the surfaces 
of all boards except the middle one 
will shrink unevenly, causing warping ; 
and those surfaces farthest from the center of the log 
will shrink most, causing the warping 
shown in Fig. 131. Notice that the 
concave sides of the boards are far- 
thest from the center of the log. 
The center board shrinks evenly be- 
cause the two surfaces are the same 
distance from the center; but the 
edges of this board are thinner than 
the center because there is more shrinkage there on 
account of its greater distance from 
the center of the log. Boards that 
are joined edge to edge, as in table 
tops, should be so joined that the 
warping of one board will be in the 
opposite direction from that of the 

Warping ofi j ^^-t j^ 

Boards Sawed from Doard next to It. In Order to accom- 
DiFFERENT Parts OF pHsh this, join the boards with their 

A Log. , ... 

annual rmgs curvmg m the opposite 
direction, as in Fig. 132. 

A shaky piece of timber is one that has cracks or splits 




Fig. 130. — Checks at 
End of a Dry Piece 
of Timber. 



/^^^ 






Fig. 131. 



TIMBER 



163 



between the annual rings. Splits that run from the 
heart to the circumference perpendicular to the annular 
rings are called heart shakes. Rapid drying of wood 
is always harmful, as the .^^^ 
surface dries more quickly ^^^^^^~^^^^ 



Method of Joining Boards 
Edge to Edge. 



than the interior, and so hg. 132. 

pulls away from it, causing 

checks. Ordinary kiln-dried lumber is inferior to 

seasoned lumber for this reason. 

In kilns, lumber is subjected to a dry heat for several 
days or weeks, which is not sufficient time to dry it 
thoroughly. Some kilns are managed by first injecting 
wet steam into the kiln to dissolve the chemicals in the 
pores ; then adding dry heat for a long time, which drives 
out the moisture gradually, and so prevents checking. 

In seasoning, lumber is piled under cover with 
strips between layers of boards, and allowed to remain 
there from two to four years. In this way it dries 
thoroughly and evenly. To prevent checking at the ends 
of thick planks, it is well to paint the ends before drying 
them. The hardwoods must be dried more slowly than 
the softwoods, or they will check and warp badly. 

Coarse-grained and close-grained woods. — The 
wood of trees may be classified as coarse-grained or 
close-grained according to their texture : 

Coarse-grained Close-grained 

Soft pine Boxwood 

Basswood Cherry 

Poplar Gum 

Maple Cedar 

Birch Western hemlock 

Beech Spruce 



Chestnut 


Mahogany 


Elm 


Rosewood 


Ash 


Hickory 


Oak 




Butternut 




Walnut 





64 



WOODWORKING 



Adaptation to special uses. — Each kind of wood 
possesses some characteristic which makes it valuable 
in certain lines of work and useless in others. The 
following tables give woods adapted to particular uses : 



Timber for placing in 


Timber for Light 


Timber for Heavy 


Moist Situations 


Framing 


Framing 


Chestnut 


Spruce 


Georgia pine 


White cedar 


Yellow pine 


Oregon pine 


Redwood 


White pine 


White oak 


Cypress 


Hemlock 


Fir 


Locust 




Norway pine 


Red cedar 






Timber for Outside 


Timber for Floors 


Timber for Interior 


Finish 




Trim 


White pine 


Hard pine 


Pine 


Redwood 


Oak 


Birch 


Cypress 


Birch 


Oak 


Cedar 


Maple 


Butternut 


Spruce 




Mahogany 
Cherry 



LESSON XXIX 
WOODWORKING TOOLS 

Bevel 




^ , ^ Fig. 133. — Bevel. 

The bevel has a movable blade that can be adjusted to 
any angle and held in that position by a thumbscrew. It 
isusedformarkingand testing any angle, as the try-square 

is used for right 

angles. The an- ^ IZ 

gles can be meas- 
ured by means 
of a protractor, 
or a carpenter's 
square may be 
used for the 
most common 
angles. Fig. 134 
shows what dis- 
tances to take 
for the most 
common angles. 




/2 
Fig. 134- • 



FARM SHOP WORK 12 



-Distances to be Used in Setting Bevel 
AT the Most Common Angles. 

165 



i66 



WOODWORKING 



Fig. 135 shows the method of setting the bevel at 
an angle of 30 degrees. 





Fig. 135. — Method of Setting Bevel at Angle of 30°. 

Brace and Bit 

Of the several kinds of bits used by the woodworker, 
the auger bit, shown in Fig. 136, is 
used more often than any other. 
The German center bit is shown in Fig. 
137, and Steer's 
patent expansion ^^^^o^i^'j — ^ ^^ 

bit in Fig. 138. Figure 139 shows Fig. 137. — German Center 

a gimlet, or twist bit. The bit- ^^^' 

brace that holds the bit is shown 
in Fig. 140. It consists of a 
knob, 
chuck, 

and handle, or sweep. The 



Spur- 



Fig. 136. — Auger Bit. 



Fig. 138. — Steer's Patent Ex 
PANSiON Bit. 



T> ^>c !^:;^s:rs> 



Gimlet. 




S/eei/e 



Chuck 



Knob 



Fig. 140. — Bitbrace. 



Fig. 139. 

braces are designated 
by the size of sweep ; 
a 10" sweep means that 
the handle extends out 
a distance of \o" . A 
ratchet brace has the 
chuck set in a ratchet so 



WOOKWORKING TOOLS 167 

that it can be used in a corner where it is impossible to 
turn the handle all the way round. The expansion bit 
has a lip held in place by a set screw a, Fig. 138, which 
is pushed in and out by the set screw h, so it is possible 
to bore holes of various sizes with the one bit. The 
gimlet, used for boring small holes, is made of hardened 
steel, and will not be injured if it strikes a nail. 

Chisel 

Chisels are cutting or edged tools, and are designated 
by the width of the blade. They range by eighths from 
\" to i", and by quarters from i" to 2". Very few 
chisels are wider than 2" . 

The handles are fastened to the blades either by a 
socket or a tang. The socket is a hollow cone in one 
end of the blade, 
and the handle 
is turned down 
to fit this socket. 
The tang is a 
sharp point with 
a shoulder, and is driven into the handle up to the 
shoulder. The handle of a tanged chisel has a metal 
ferrule to prevent splitting. 

Chisels are divided into three general classes accord- 
ing to their uses. The paring chisel has a light, thm 
blade intended to be used in the light work of paring, 
or taking thin shavings, and should never be driven by 
a mallet. The firmer chisel is heavier and intended for 
all ordinary work. The framing chisel is the heaviest 
and is used for cutting mortises in heavy timbers. The 
handle is in a socket, and it has a heavy iron ferrule 




Fig. 141. — Chisels. 



1 68 



WOODWORKING 



at the upper end to prevent splintering by blows of 
the mallet. Some chisels are bevel-edged, which 
have advantages over the other form in cutting dovetail 
joints, as the thin edge enables one to cut down close 
to the line without danger of splitting the sides of the 
mortise. 

Drawshave and Spokeshave 

The drawshave, Fig. 142, is a long chisel pulled by two 
hands, and is used in rather coarse work where con- 






FiG. 142. — Drawshave. 

siderable material is to be removed. The sections in 
this drawing show shapes of blades for different uses. 
The spokeshave. Fig. 143, is a small plane with a very 

short sole, and 
so may be used 
oncurvedwork. 

Fig. 143. -Spokeshave. j^ -^ p^jj^j ^^ 

pushed by the two handles at the side of the blade. 
The depth of cut may be regulated by the set screw on 
the blade. 

Gouge 

The gouge is a 
chisel with curved 
blade. If the gouge 
is ground on the 
outside, or convex 

surface, it is called Fig. 144. — Gouges. 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 169 

outside ground ; and if ground on the inside, or con- 
cave surface, it is called inside ground. The gouge is 
measured across from edge to edge, and is designated 
by this dimension. By its curvature, or sweep, it is 
designated as flat, middle, or full curved. 

Marking Gauge 
This tool consists of the beam, which is usually 8'' 
or 10'' long and nearly square, with a spur or steel pomt 
fastened in one end so that it projects about ^e ''• The 
head or guide is a block which slides on the beam, and 
is held in position by a thumbscrew. One side of the 
beam is graduated into inches and fractions of an inch. 
If the spur becomes bent, these graduations no longer 
indicate the correct distances. 

Plane 

The plane consists of a blade set in a cast-iron or 
wooden stock. The front end of the stock is the toe, and 
the back end is the heel. The bottom is the sole, and 
the opening or slit in it is the mouth. The plane is held 
in both hands, by the knob in front and the handle be- 
hind. The blade, which is the cutting iron of the plane, 
is fastened to the stock by an iron clamp. Fastened to 
the upper side of the blade is a cap iron, or chip breaker. 
The iron clamp fastens the blade and cap iron to the 
frog. The slot in the blade allows the cap iron to be 
regulated at different distances from the edge of the 
blade ; also the lower end of the lever fits into this slot 
and adjusts it from side to side. In the cap iron are 
three openings : At the upper end is a small slot, by 
which it is regulated up and down with the thumb- 



I70 



WOODWORKING 



screw. Below this is a small, round-threaded hole, 
through which passes a short machine screw which 




/ Plane iron e Frog // Handle le Sole 

z Plane Iron Cap 7 Y Adjusfmenl izlCnob n Moulh 

3 Plane Iron Screw e Adjusting Nut /3 Handle Bolt le Toe 

^ Cap 9 Lateral Adj. Lei/er i^frnob Boll i9Hed 

6 Cop dcreiAT 10 Frog Sere ia/ /sHond/e Screw 

Fig. 145. — Plane. 

fastens the cap iron to the blade. Beneath this is a 

larger slot, through which 
passes the longer machine 
screw which is screwed in- 
to the frog, and by means 
of the clamp this screw holds 
the blade and cap iron to 
the frog. Back of the frog 
and in front of the handle is 
the thumbscrew, which en- 
gages a lever that fits into 
the upper slot of the cap 
iron and forces it up and 
down. This motion carries 
the edge of the blade in and 
out of the mouth and sets 
it for depth of cut. 
While setting the plane blade, hold the plane as 

shown in Fig. 146 and sight along the sole of the stock, 




Fig. 146. — Setting the Plane Blade. 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 171 

as along a gun barrel, with one eye closed ; and in this 
way you can see how much of the blade projects^ and 
regulate it accordingly. The lever working in the slot 
of the blade regulates the blade from side to side. 

There are several kinds of planes. Those most 
commonly used are the smoothing plane, used for sur- 
facing lumber ; and the jack plane, used for edging and 
for rough surfacing lumber when it is necessary to re- 
move a quantity of stock to reduce the thickness. The 
jointer is a long jack plane which is used to true up the 
edges of boards preparatory to gluing them, or to make 
straight edges. The block plane has the blade set at 
a low angle and is used for planing across the grain of 
the ends of boards. 

Rule 

The rule ordinarily used by carpenters and cabinet 
makers is two feet long, made of boxwood, and bound 
w^ith brass. On each 
of the four 
there are marks 




every 1 , 2 > 4 > 
and f ; and two of 

, , 1 , Fig. 147. — Rule. 

the edges also have 
marks every -^q'\ There are, in addition to these marks, 
others representing scales. Suppose the object we wish 
to draw is too large to be represented full size ; as, for ex- 
ample, a barn. It would have to be drawn on a smaller 
scale of, say, Y' to the foot. We would use that part 
of the rule where a quarter of an inch is divided off into 
twelve parts, each representing an inch on the reduced 
scale. The scale marked 3 means that a space of 3'' 



172 



WOODWORKING 



is divided off into twelfths, each representing one 
inch. 

If it is desired to find the middle of a board of such a 
width, that to measure one half of it would mean the use 
of fractions not found on the rule, for example, 3f , 
the middle can be found easily by setting the rule diago- 
nally on the surface, so that it measures an even number 
from edge to edge of the board ; and then mark off the 
middle point of this division. In this way a board may 
be divided into any number of equal parts. If three 
parts are wanted, use a number of inches divisible by 
three. 



Saw 

Next to the hammer, the saw is the most important 
tool used by the woodworker. Saws are used for cut- 
ting lumber into smaller pieces, and when the cutting 

is across the grain, 
the teeth must be 
so sharpened that 
they will cut just as 
\ 'l|i|j iii —Jl A the point of a knife 




Fig. 148. — Teeth of a Ripsaw. 



cuts when 
across the 




Fig. 149. — Teeth of a Crosscut Saw. 



drawn 
grain. 
Such saws are called 
crosscut saws. Saws 
used for cutting par- 
allel with the grain 
have the teeth filed 



like the edge of a narrow chisel, and are called ripsaws. 
Fig. 148 shows the teeth of a ripsaw. Fig. 149 shows 
the teeth of a crosscut saw. 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 173 

The shape of the teeth also determines the use of the 
saw. Notice in the crosscut teeth that the sides make 
equal angles with the horizontal line while, one edge 
of the ripsaw teeth makes an angle of 90 degrees with 
this line, and the other side a variable angle. Saws for 
coarse work have large teeth, and consequently, in such 
saws there are fewer teeth to the inch than in saws in- 
tended for fine work. The size of the teeth is designated 
by so many points per inch. In a 6-point saw there are 
six teeth to the inch, and this number is stamped on the 
end of the blade next to the handle. 

The bevel on the edges of a crosscut saw is called 
the fleam, and the w^der this fleam, the sharper and 
weaker the teeth. The weak tooth will soon wear out 
on hardwood, and so a saw to be used on hardwood 
should have a narrow fleam. The angle at the front 
edge of the tooth aff'ects the smoothness of the cut and 
the force necessary to push the saw through the wood. 
This can be illustrated by drawing the blade of a knife 
across the grain of a board, first with the blade held in 
a perpendicular position, and then held inclined at an 
angle less than 90 degrees. It has been found that the 
angle of 60 degrees in crosscut saws is the best for all- 
round work ; and that in ripsaws, 90 degrees is best. 

When a large board is to be sawed, it should be 
placed on sawhorses, and a large saw should be used. 
If the piece is small, it can be held in the vise or on a 
bench hook, and a small saw should be used. A back- 
saw is the name of a small saw with fine teeth and a 
thin blade, too thin to be used without a strip of metal 
on the back to prevent it buckling or bending. This 
saw is used in fine cabinet work. 



174 



WOODWORKING 



Thick stuff should be Kned on both sides and sawed 
from both sides to insure accurate work. 

In using the saw, httle or no pressure should be ex- 
erted in a line parallel with the edge, or it will be difficult 
to make the saw cut to the line. It is best to place the 
piece to be cut in a vertical or horizontal position. No 
steering of the saw should be necessary, but if the teeth 
are longer on one side than on the other, then the saw 
will run towards that side. The practice of changing 
sides will remedy this ; however, the proper remedy is 
the careful filing and setting of the teeth. In starting 
the saw, set the heel on the mark and make the first 
stroke a pull to make a small groove in which the saw 
will travel more easily on the push stroke. If, in sawing 
wood full of resin, the saw gums up, a little kerosene 
will dissolve the gum. 

Try-square 

The parts of a try-square are the beam and the blade, 

shown in Fig. 150. 
The beam may be 
of wood or metal, 
the latter being 
better ; and the 
blade should be of 
steel, marked ofFin- 
to inches and frac- 
tions of an inch. 
Try-squares should 
be tested with the 

large carpenter's square before beginning work, to be 

sure that they are true. 



1 


4 


3 

BLADE. 


V 'I'I'ITI' '1' 

2 / 






1, 




Fig. 150.- 


-Try-square. 


\ 









WOODWORKING TOOLS 175 



Turning Saw 



The turning saw consists of a thin blade held in a 
frame very similar to a bucksaw. It is much smaller, 
however, and has the handles at each end of the blade. 
These handles can be turned at any angle so that the 
blade may be made to cut in any direction. The nar- 
row blade makes it possible to turn the saw while 
cutting, and so it can be used in cutting curves. 

Several sizes of blades can be used. The narrower 
the blade, the smaller the arc in which it can be turned. 
When cutting out fretwork, it is first necessary to bore 
a hole, then to take out the saw blade from one handle 
by loosening the turnbuckle on the back, next, insert 
it in the hole, then place it back in the frame and 
tighten the turnbuckle. 

Sandpaper 

Sandpaper is a tough heavy paper, coated with glue 
on which sand has been sprinkled. It is called garnet 
paper, when the sand is dark red in color; and it is 
called glass paper, when ground glass is sprinkled on in- 
stead of sand. The sand is of 
various degrees of fineness and 
is numbered from 00 to 3, the 
00 being the finest. Sand- 
paper is an abrasive tool that 
must not be used until all 
other tool work is completed, ^- HictlT^Zlc.^'"''' 
as the particles of sand be- 
come embedded in the pores of the wood, and will dull 
any edged tool used over it. Sandpaper blocks should 




176 WOODWORKING 

be used except when sanding down shellac or varnish 
in wood finishing. A square block of wood is used for 
plain surfaces. A block as shown in Fig. 151 is useful 
on curved surfaces. It is made by gluing a strip of 
leather to the surface of a block, and, when dry, saw- 
ing grooves through the wood down to the leather, so 
that the block can be curved into a concave or convex 
shape, according to the kind of work to be done. 

Never sandpaper across the grain, as it leaves 
scratches that become more ugly as the wood is stained 
or filled. 



LESSON XXX 

USES OF THE STEEL SQUARE 

Frequently farmers wish to build a shed, or an addi- 
tion to the barn, or even to construct the barn itself. 

If a man happens to be handy with tools and un- 
derstands the use of the steel square, he can plan and 
construct most of his buildings without hiring expert 
carpenters. 

The steel square, also called the carpenter's square, 
or framing square, consists of two steel blades at right 
angles to each other. One, about 24" long and 2" wide, is 
called the blade; the other, about 16" long and i^^'wide, 
is called the tongue. Steel squares are graduated into 
sixteenths, eighths, quarters, and halves of an mch, 
and some into twelfths of an inch. The blade and 
tongue of the square are covered with graduations, the 
meaning of which will be given in the directions that 
are to follow. 

Brace measure. — On one side of the tongue in the 
middle are figures, by means of which it is possible to 
obtain the length of braces used in framing. Take, for 
example, the numbers 

36j^ ^ 

which means that if two timbers each 36'' long are to 
be braced, the brace will be 50.92'' long. The length 

177 



178 



WOODWORKING 



of the brace can also be obtained by geometry. The 
square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal 
to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. In 



jc l^iJar 



,eo. ' 



^^ t 



Aieosure. 





'Vw \ 






T 


4 i> ►, 




Ocfoffon Jco/e. 
Fig. i.';2. — Steel Square. 


■- 




-I 


u< ^ <. 




^ 


a^ 








\ 


-2 


^!r 


. 


_(S b^i. 




t, ' 


""^^ <s 


^ _ 


Jr 


^ 


1- 








:sf 












_^ 












^ 






_^ 












^ 






^ 


















jl 




_ 





this case the two timbers and the brace form a right 
triangle in which the brace forms the hypotenuse. The 
two sides are each ^6" long; and, as the square of 36 is 
1296, the sum of the two squares equals 2592. The 
square root of 2592 is 50.92, which is the length of the 



USES OF THE STEEL SQUARE 



179 



brace. Take another example ; look on the square for 

the numbers 

18] 

which means that if two timbers are respectively 18'' 
and 24'' long, the brace connecting them will be 30'' 
long. The square of 18 is 324 and the square of 24 is 
576. The sum of these two is 900. The square root of 
900 is 30, which is the length of the hypotenuse, or brace. 
By this rule of geometry you can determine the length 
of the brace for two timbers of any length not given 
on the square. Another method is to measure off two 
lines at right angles to each other, representing respec- 
tivel}^ the lengths of the timbers to be braced, then 
measure the distance between their ends. 

The carpenter's method of finding the length of a 
brace and the bevel of the cuts at the ends is as follows. 
Suppose the two timbers are each 36'' long; lay the 




Aaijing off Brace. 
Legs efua/. 



/ Locffng off Brace 
Legs une^ua/ 



Fig. 153. — Laying off Braces. 



square on the timber to be used for the brace so that 
the \^" mark on the tongue and blade are both on the 



i8o WOODWORKING 

edge of the timber, Fig. 153. The tongue will give the 
bevel of the upper end of the brace. Mark the edge 
of the brace at a where the blade crosses it. Set the 
square again so that the \2^' mark comes at a and the 
12" mark on the blade crosses the edge of the timber at 
h. Again set the square in the same way and the blade 
will give the bevel of the lower end of the brace and the 
length of the brace at the same time. 

Take another example in which the two timbers to 
be braced are ^o" and 38'' long. Set the square on the 
brace so that the 15'' mark on the tongue and the 19" 
mark on the blade are on the edge, and mark at a ; set 
again in the same way as before and you will have the 
length of the brace and the bevels of the upper and lower 
ends. 

Board measure. — The unit of measurement in lum- 
ber is the board foot, which is a board i'' thick, 12'' 
wide, and 12'' long. It is often necessary to find the 
number of board feet in timbers of various sizes. The 
steel square can be used for this purpose. The large- 
sized figures at the top of the board measure scale rep- 
resent the various widths of the boards. Under the 
12'' mark are to be found the figures 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 
15. These figures represent the various lengths of 
boards. Between the horizontal lines are the figures 
that indicate board feet, assuming the boards to be 1" 
thick. It will be noticed that the figures under the 12'' 
mark represent both length and board feet of boards 
that are 12'' wide. A board i" thick, 12'' wide, and 8' 
long contains 8 board feet. Notice that the board 
feet of boards 10'' wide, whose lengths are indicated by 
the figures under the 12" mark, are represented by 



USES OF THE STEEL SQUARE 



i8i 



the figures under the lo'' mark. For example, a board 
lo'' wide and 8' long contains 6.8 board feet ; and a 
board lo'' wide and lo' long contains 8.4 board feet. 
Notice the number of board feet in boards 18'' wide 
and whose lengths are 8', 9', 10', 11', 13', 14', and 15', 
respectively. By calculation verify the correctness of 
these numbers that indicate the board measure. You 
will notice that many of the numbers indicating board 
feet are correct only to the nearest tenth. Suppose a 
timber is 2'' thick, 14' long, and 8^' wide. Look under the 
12^' mark for 14 and then along the fine for the figure 
8'^ under which you will find the number 9.4. This 
indicates that there are 9.4 board feet in a board i" 
thick, 8'' wide, and 14' long; but our piece is 2" thick, 
so it is necessary to multiply the 9.4 by 2, which gives 
18.8, the number of board feet. 

You will notice that there are no provisions made for 
a timber that is 12' long, because a timber that long has 
in it as many board feet as the number of inches in its 
width, if it is i" thick. 

Octagon scale. — On one side of the tongue of some 
squares will be found small round dots, or short lines, 
and numbers on . n f a 

th 



em, as 10, 20, 30, 
40, etc. This con- 
stitutes the octagon 
scale which is used 
in laying off octa- 
gons on square tim- 
bers 




Fig. 154 

Suppose the timber is 8 



Laying off ^vn Octagon. 

'' X 8''. Across the end 



of the timber draw two center fines. Fig. 1 54, ah and cd, 
at right angles to each other. Set a compass with 

FARM SHOP WORK 1 3 



1 82 



WOODWORKING 



the points stretching across as many places on the 
scale as the timber is inches wide and thick. Placing 
one point of the compass at a, lay off points e and /. 
Likewise, lay off two points each from b, c, and d. 
Draw lines from these points and you have an octagon. 
Another way is to draw diagonals ab and cd ; and with 
the compass set at half the length of these diagonals 
scribe arcs as in the drawing, and then connect the ends 
of these arcs, thus completing an octagon. 

Rafter tables. — Some squares are marked with 
rafter tables. These tables are under the edge of the 

blade graduated into 
twelfths. The twelfths 
may mean twelfths of 
an inch or twelfths of 
a foot. The number 
above represents the 
run of the rafter. The run of a rafter is one half the 
width of the house. (See Fig. 155.) 

The following table gives the pitch of a roof with the 
runs and rises most commonly used by carpenters : 




12' 


run to 


4' 


rise equals 


12' 


run to 


6' 


rise equals 


12' 


run to 


8' 


rise equals 


12' 


run to 


10' 


rise equals 


12' 


run to 


12' 


rise equals 


12' 


run to 


15' 


rise equals 


12' 


run to 


18' 


rise equals 



I pitch. 
J pitch. 
\ pitch. 
Y% pitch. 



4 pitch. 

f pitch. 

3 

4 



pitch. 



If the width of a building is 22' and the roof is ^ pitch, 
the run is 11' and the rise is 11'. Following the rafter 
table under ruling ^ pitch, under the graduation 10 you 



USES OF THE STEEL SQUARE 183 

will find the figures 14 1-8, which means that the rafter 

length is 14' 1 1^2''- 

The rafters can also be laid off with the square, as the 
braces were. Take the run of the rafter on the blade 
and the rise on the tongue, and lay off the square on 
the timber as many times as the run on the square is 
contained in the run of the rafter. This method also 
gives the bevel cuts at the top and bottom of the rafters. 
Suppose the roof is i pitch, which means that the run 
is 12' and the rise G . Lay the square on the rafter with 
the \'i" mark of the tongue and the 6'' mark of the 
blade touching the edge. Mark and repeat the operation 
as many times as \z" is contained in 12', or 12 times. 
You then will have the bevel at the foot of the rafter. 

Hip rafters. — A hip rafter is one that runs from the 
corner of a building to the ridgepole, striking the latter 
at a point as far from the end of the building as the 
ridge is from the side of the building. 

In order to find the length of a hip rafter it is neces- 
sary first to find the run. If the roof is \ pitch, take 
half the width of the building on both blade and tongue. 
The diagonal between them is the run of the hip rafter. 
With the run of this rafter on the blade and the rise of 
the roof on the tongue, get the length of the hip rafter 
from the length of the diagonal connecting these points. 
The length of a valley rafter can be obtained in the same 
way. All lengths should be taken along the middle of 
the rafter. 

Jack rafters. —A jack rafter is a rafter running 
from the plate to a hip or valley rafter ; and is shorter 
than other rafters. To find the length of a jack rafter, 
first find its run. The run of the hip rafter is divided 



1 84 WOODWORKING 

into as many parts as there are spaces between the 
first full rafter and the corner of the building. The dis- 
tance along the plate between the corner and the first 
full rafter is divided into the same number. Set the 
square so that this number taken on the blade coin- 
cides with the edge of the plate, and place the edge of 
the tongue on the first point of the run of the hip rafter. 
The distance on the tongue represents the run of the 
first jack rafter. 

With this distance on the blade, divide the rise of 
the common rafter into as many divisions as there are 
spaces between the jack rafters, and the resulting num- 
ber taken on the tongue gives for the length of the jack 
rafter the diagonal of these two points. 

Stairs. — In finding the length of stringers for stairs, 
use the same methods as in finding the length of 
braces and rafters. Having found the length of the 
stringer by this means, lay off on it the square with a 
point on the tongue representing the riser of the stairs, 
and a point on the blade representing the run, or tread, 
of the stairs. 

Repeat this until the required number of stairs has 
been laid out. 



LESSON XXXI 



GLUE IN WOODWORKING 



n Shoulder Spindle 



M 



Screi/VJayv 



Gluing up work. — In gluing 
up work it is necessary to have i Shoulder jaw 
a number of suitable wooden 
clamps, as shown in Fig. 156, 
and a long wooden clamp, as in 
Fig. 157, or iron clamp, as in 
Fig. 158. In case there are not 

enough of the long clamps for the Fig. 156.- Wooden Clamp. 

work, temporary clamps can be made Hke those in Fig. 
159. For small joint work, iron carriage clamps, like 



Bac/{ Spindle 




Fig. 157. — Long Wooden Clamp. 




Fig. 158. — Iron Clamp. 
185 



1 86 

m 



WOODWORKING 



rWeclge 



H 



n 




(w m 





Fig. i6o. — Carriage 

Clamp. 



Fig. i6i. — Spreading 
Glue on Edges. 



Fig. 159. — Temporary Clamps. 

those in Fig. 160, can be used if blocks 
of wood are placed under the jaws to 
prevent marring. 
In applying the 
glue to two edges 
to be joined, hold 
them as in Fig. 161. In gluing sur- 
faces, hold them as in Fig. 162. The 
end grain, being more porous, soaks 
up the glue, leaving none to hold the 
joint ; therefore, it is necessary 
to put on one coat first, and to 
let that partly dry before putting 
on the second coat. Mortise 
and tenon joints should be held 
in placewith nails, screws, or pegs Fig 
as well as with glue. This is also 

PI true of dovetail joints, 

ji 11 In all work except veneer, 

glue should be applied to 
both surfaces sparingly, 
as all surplus glue must 
be rubbed or squeezed 
out before the joint sets. 




162. — Spreading Glue on 
Broad Surfaces. 




incorrect 



correct 



Fig. 163. — Correct and Incorrect 
Methods of Clamping Glued Surfaces. 




GLUE IN WOODWORKING 187 

An absolutely smooth surface does not glue so well as 
a rough one, as the glue does not enter the pores so 
readily ; and for this reason, sawed mortise and tenon 
and halved joints are stronger than those trimmed with 
the chisel. On some kinds of wood, as birch, the glue 
will appear dark, thereby making the joint conspicuous. 
The only way to avoid this is to make the joint come 
in an inconspicuous place if possible. 

After a glued joint has been clamped in place, all sur- 
plus glue that has been 
squeezed out should be 
wiped off with a cloth 
wet in warm water, as it 
is easier to remove it 

, . , r • 1 Fig. 164. — Strengthening a Joint by 

this Wa}^ than after it has Mkans of Glue Blocks. 

hardened. Do not wash 

it off, as the water would enter the joint and weaken 

the glue. 

Absorption of water. — According to its quality, glue 
will absorb a certain amount of water. Good glue 
will absorb miore water than poor glue. Glue having an 
absorption test of 50, means that one pound of glue will 
absorb 50 ounces of water ; this will make glue too thin 
for cabinet work, but just right for sizing or cardboard 
work. In order to get a good consistency it will be neces- 
sary to reduce the amount of water about 30 per cent. 

Cooking, — When glue has been soaked in cold water 
over night, it is ready for cooking, which is done in a 
gluepot, or double boiler. No direct heat should come in 
contact with the glue, or it will burn and stick. The 
cooking should continue until enough of the water has 
been evaporated to make it of the proper consistency. 



1 88 WOODWORKING 

If the cooking is continued very long, the quahty of 
the glue will deteriorate. New glue should be made for 
each day's work, if the best results are to be obtained. 
Old glue will hold, but not so well as fresh stock. Glue 
that is held to the cooking point for a half day will 
lose half of its holding power. Being soluble in water, 
glue will not hold if kept in a damp place or if frequently 
wet with water. Soaked glue will dissolve more readily 
than dry glue, and ground glue will dissolve more readily 
than glue in lumps. Glue that has been cooked with- 
out previous soaking is apt to have hard lumps in it. 

Glue brushes are, of course, not fastened with glue, 
but with shellac, cement, or rubber. Rubber-set 
brushes are the best for all purposes, as they are not 
soluble in any of the solvents usually used, and so will 
not lose hairs, as the others do. In these brushes the 
bristles are set in liquid rubber and the rubber is then 
vulcanized, or made hard, by steam heat. The glue 
brush should be soaked in hot water some time before 
using, and should be taken from the gluepot and washed 
in hot water after using. In gluing large surfaces, use 
thinner glue than when gluing small joints ; for if the 
surfaces are cold, the glue will chill before the pieces can 
be put in place, and a poor joint will result ; and if the 
boards are too hot, they will cause the glue to dry be- 
fore the joining can be done. 

Purchasing glue. — The purchase of good glue is a 
matter of great importance. The average woodworker 
should purchase glue from professional woodworkers, to 
be sure of obtaining as good a grade as that supplied to 
the trade. Buy from a cabinet maker, pattern maker, 
or a planing mill, and you will get the best results. 



LESSON XXXII 

FILING SAWS AND GRINDING EDGE TOOLS 

Filing Saws 

Filing a saw is a very difficult operation, and the 
novice should read the directions very carefully before 
beginning, and in the first trial he should take a rather 
coarse saw, such as a bucksaw. 

Remember that each tooth is a knife or a chisel, 
and if all teeth are of the same length, each will do an 
equal amount of work in cutting; but if one tooth is 
longer than the others, it will do more than its share 
of work and will be strained so that it is liable to break. 

The space between two teeth is called the throat ; 
it serves to carry out the sawdust as fast as made by 
the teeth. Different kinds of wood require teeth vary- 
ing in size, shape, and style of filing. To get the best 
results, there should be a different kind of saw for each 
variety of work to be done ; but as this is impracticable, 
it will be better to dress the saws 
in such a way as to make them 
do as great a variety of work as 
possible. 

The blades of all saws filed Fig. 165. — Position of File 

hi J I u 1 J • • IN Filing a Saw. 

ould be held in a vise perpen- 
dicularly, and the file should be held horizontally, as in 
Fig. 165. If the front and back of the tooth are filed 

189 




I90 WOODWORKING 

Straight across with the file held horizontally and at 
right angles to the edge of the blade, the filing will 
produce a perfect chisel edge. If all the teeth are filed 
from one side, a wire edge will be produced on the op- 
posite side, which will cause the saw to run or saw 
crooked, so it will be better to file every alternate 
tooth from one side and the others from the opposite 
side. 

Ripsaws. — The teeth of a ripsaw are chisel-shaped, 
and each tooth cuts off a small piece of wood across 
the grain. They should be filed across the saw or at 
an angle of 90 degrees with the edge. 

The front of a ripsaw tooth is perpendicular and the 
back is inclined at an angle of 60 degrees from the per- 
pendicular front of the tooth. 

The teeth of a ripsaw should be set slightly to insure 
easy and smooth work. Softwoods require larger teeth 
and more set to prevent binding. 

Crosscut saws. — In crosscut saws, the teeth cut 
the fibers of the wood at right angles to their length, 
and therefore should be shaped like the point of a knife 
blade. Considerable care should be taken to give the 
tooth the most desirable shape. Remember that the 
sharper the tooth the weaker it is, the faster it will 

Ky cut, and the faster it will become dull. 
I Therefore a tooth intended for very soft 
wood, as basswood, redwood, or butter- 
^ nut, should be very sharp ; while that 

Fig. 166.— A Sharp intended for white oak, hard maple, or 

TToOTTT 

osage orange should be blunt. A tooth 
shaped as in Fig. 166 will do very well for very soft 
woods. The bevel, or fleam, has a very wide front and 



FILING SAWS AND GRINDING EDGE TOOLS 



191 



A 



Fig. 167. — A Moderately 
Sharp Tooth. 



back, making a very sharp and weak tooth. It also 
has a greater rake, or angle, in front than in back, 
which insures fast cutting in soft- 
woods, but in hardwoods this rake 
causes the saw to buckle and hang 
up. A tooth like Fig. 167 will be 
suitable for moderately hard woods. 
It has a moderate fleam in front and back, with the 
front and back rake equal and at 60 degrees. A tooth 

Arx^ shaped Uke Fig. 168 will answer for very 
hard woods. It has a narrow fleam in 
J front and no fleam on the back ; and the 
rake behind is a trifle greater than 
that in front. This tooth will stay 
sharp when used on hard woods. 

Jointing. — Always joint the saw before setting 



Fig. 168. — a Blunt 
Tooth. 



or filing it. Joint- 
ing means filing the 
points down even. 
A good jointer is 

shown in Fig. 169. Fig. 169. — a Saw jointer. 

It is a block of wood cut out so that a flat file can be 
inserted and the whole run over the edge of the 
saw. 

Setting. — Setting is done by means of a saw set 
which turns the points of the teeth 
alternately right and left. This causes 
the saw to cut a kerf wider than the 
blade of the saw and thus enables it to 

Incorrect Correct mOVe ftCcly thtOUgh the WOod. A COU- 

FiG. 170. — Setting siderably larger set is required for saws 

the Teeth of a , . ^ i i r 

Saw. to be used on soft green woods than tor 



W 



192 WOODWORKING 

hard dry woods Do not try to set the entire tooth, 
but only the point. (Fig. 170.) 

Filing. — When the saw has been jointed and set, 
then proceed to file it. In fiUng a crosscut saw, hold 
the file horizontally, and at an angle of 45 degrees 
with the edge of the blade, when filing a tooth repre- 
sented by Fig. 166. For filing a tooth shown by Fig. 
167, hold the file horizontally with the blade and at an 
angle greater than 45 degrees with the edge. For a 
tooth shown by Fig. 168, hold the file horizontally and 
at an angle of about 60 degrees for the front fleam, and 
at an angle of 90 degrees for the back of the tooth. 
Begin at the heel of the saw and file towards the point. 

Side dressing. — When the saw has been filed, it 
should be side dressed by laying it flat on the bench 
and once or twice rubbing an oilstone over the teeth. 
If you are to saw green or soft wood, side dressing is 
unnecessary; but if you are to saw hard wood, con- 
siderable side dressing will be advantageous, as it will 
mean a very smooth cut, in fact, smoother than one 
can plane the end grain with the block plane. 

Grinding Edge Tools 

The plane bit and chisel should be sharpened for the 
kind of work they are to do. The harder the wood, 
the blunter must be the edge in order to keep sharp 
against the wear of the hard grain. On soft wood, 
a longer bevel can be used ; this will cut better, and 
because of the softness of the wood will wear longer. 

The chisel and plane bit should be sharpened in 
the same manner, and so directions given for one will 



FILING SAWS AND GRINDING EDGE TOOLS I93 

apply to the other. The angle at which these tools 
should be sharpened varies with mechanics from 20 
to 30 degrees. We may take 23 degrees as satisfactory, 
and sharpen all tools at this angle. When it is necessary 
to use the tool on some hard wood, it can be honed on 
an oilstone to a greater angle with little trouble, and 
the necessity of grinding down to a new bevel over the 
entire thickness of the tool is avoided. The first step 
in sharpening these tools is to use the grindstone or 
emery wheel. Water should be used on either stone 
for two reasons : (i) it keeps the tool from getting so 
hot as to draw the temper; (2) it carries away the bits 
of steel and stone that are worn off, leaving a new sur- 
face for grinding. A soft stone is better than a hard 
one, because it wears away instead of glazing over, 
thus always presenting a new and sharp surface to 
the tool. The tool should be examined frequently, 
and some device should be used to insure replacing 
the tool on the stone at the same angle at which it was 
before it was lifted. Grind the edge down until it is 
square and sharp. Test for squareness with the try- 
square, and test for the desired angle by the use of a 
template ground at the proper angle. When the bevel 
has been properly ground, it should be honed on an 
oilstone. 

The honing can be done in one of two ways, either 
by a forward and backward motion, or by a circular 
motion. Either method will wear down the oilstone 
unevenly at the ends if it is not a round stone. 

The grinding and honing will leave a wire edge, 
which will drop off in time if the tool is reversed and 
honed on the flat side with the flat side flat on the stone. 



194 



WOODWORKING 



Do not raise it, or a second bevel will be started on that 
side and it will be impossible to do good work when 
using the tool. 

Test the sharpness of the tool by drawing it across 
the thick of the thumb, to see it if takes hold of the 
callus there. If not, then it is not sharp ; but if sharp, 
it will take hold enough to catch the skin, and care 
must be taken or a deep cut will result. When the 
honing has been completed, draw the corners across 
the hone once or twice to round the square corners. 
This will prevent the corners making a score or mark on 
the surface of the wood when it is planed. 

A gouge must be sharpened with slips, which are 
small oilstones tapering from edge to edge, and with 
the edges rounded instead of square. 

Carving and turning tools are sharpened with slips 
in the same way as the gouges are. 

Oilstones. — Oilstones are of two kinds, — natural and 
artificial. The most common natural stones are the 
Washita and the Arkansas, which are very fine and 
very hard. They are also very expensive, too much so 
for use in any ordinary work shop. These stones give 
a very fine edge on tools, but require a great deal of 
time and work in producing it. 

Emery and corundum, which are nearly pure forms 
of alumina, have been extensively used as abrasives. 
They are extremely hard, but not so hard as the 
diamond, being 9 in the scale of hardness, while the 
diamond is 10. If the diamond were not so scarce, it 
would drive all other abrasives out of the market. 

To prevent oilstones being broken, they should be 
mounted in a box made for that purpose. As the name 



FILING SAWS AND GRINDING EDGE TOOLS 195 

indicates, oil should be used on these stones when 
sharpening tools. Mineral oils are not recommended, 
but some Hght animal oil that will not gum should 
be used sparingly, and the surplus wiped off when 
through. Kerosene is useful after the stone has been 
used quite a time with other oils, and a mixture of 
equal parts glycerin and alcohol will make a stone 
take hold even after it seems to be glazed. Soaking 
in dilute sulphuric acid or lye will also clean out a stone 
and make it work after all other efforts have proved 
useless. It is almost impossible to wear down an oil- 
stone evenly, for most of the wear comes in the middle, 
and it is difficult to use the extreme ends without the 
tool slipping off and thus injuring its edge. 

Fig. 171 shows a method of making a box with two 
pieces of hard wood set upright at the ends, and the 
tops flush with the top of the oilstone. 




Fig. 171. — Box to Hold Oilstone. 

With this arrangement, it is possible to use the stone 
clear to the ends, thus wearing it down evenly. Round 
stones have the advantage in this respect, for no part of 
them is subjected to more wear than any other part. 
Oilstones with an uneven surface can be trued up by 
rubbing them on sandpaper or on a smooth flat board 
over which has been sprinkled sand and water. Of 
the artificial stones the carborundum is the best be- 



196 WOODWORKING 

cause of its rapid cutting, its hardness, and nonglazing 
qualities. 

Carborundum is cleaned by washing in dilute sul- 
phuric acid. To make wheels, stones, etc., the carborun- 
dum is mixed with some binding material and placed 
in a hydraulic press and then vitrified. Carborundum 
will do work better and more quickly than emery or 
corundum ; and because it saves time and labor, it is 
in great demand. 



BLACKSMITHING 

The farmer is called upon to exercise a great deal of 
ingenuity, and to adapt himself to meet emergencies 
perhaps more than a man in any other line of work. 
There are so many chances on the farm for small leaks 
in the income, so many trifling expenses connected with 
the upkeep of tools and appliances, that in the aggregate 
they amount to a good deal, and may mean the dif- 
ference between a profit and a loss at the end of the year. 
The farmer must know something about a great many 
trades as well as a great deal about agriculture. Any 
information and skill he may acquire will increase 
his earning power and saving power, and so will in- 
crease the profits of farming. It is not generally 
considered on the farm that time is an all-important 
element; but when some part of a threshing machine 
breaks, throwing out of work a dozen men while it is 
taken to town to be mended by a blacksmith, the farmer 
is impressed with the fact that time is money. With 
a few tools and a little instruction and practice, any 
farmer can mend nearly any break that is likely to 
occur in the ordinary work of the farm. If careful 
records be kept of such items, it will soon be found 
that the saving in time will pay for the outlay for 
tools. Besides these economic considerations, it is a 
well known fact that blacksmithing has a pecuhar 
fascination for boys. 

FARM SHOP WORK — I4 197 



LESSON XXXIII 

THE FORGE AND ANVIL 

The forge. — The blacksmith's forge consists of 
a bowl-shaped hearth with an opening in the middle 
of the bottom, called the tuyere. Through the tuyere 
comes the blast of air forced either with a bellows or 
rotary fan. 

The tuyere should provide openings for the blast 
and at the same time should be protected in such a way 
as to prevent any quantity of cinders from falling into 
it, thus clogging and interfering with the blast. There 
should be an opening in the lower part of the pipe 
leading to the forge, so the cinders can be cleaned out 
from time to time. 

A portable fan-blast forge of light construction is 
suitable for farm work. One in which the fan is operated 
by a crank and a train of gears is the most convenient. 
The farmer should have a tool house, or shop where all 
repair work can be done. In this place should be the 
work bench and tools, the sewing jack for the repair 
of harness, and the forge. 

Coal. — The best soft coal should be used for forging. 
Good forge coal crumbles easily in the hands and pro- 
duces very few clinkers when burned. Avoid coal 
that breaks into layers and is of a dull appearance, as 
that is steam coal and is not so good for blacksmithing 

198 



THE FORGE AND ANVIL 199 

as the other. Coke and charcoal are sometimes used 
for forging, but not generally. 

Coking. — Clean out the bowl of the forge and start 
a fire with shavings and chips of wood, and cover with 
some coke left over from the last fire. 

If there is no coke, then cover with green coal and 
continue the blast until a good fire is burning. Next 
produce coke by covering the fire with green coal that 
has been wet with water, and pack the coal over the 
fire to prevent the blast from coming through. 

In forming coke, the gases are driven out of the coal, 
leaving nothing but carbon and ash. The value of 
coke over coal lies in the fact that it can be brought to 
a higher degree of heat and it is free from smoke and 
flame. Coke is a nonconductor of heat and so con- 
fines the heat of the fire to a small area. During the 
forging, the fire should be banked around on all sides 
with wet green coal, which will gradually turn to coke. 
Keep the fire free from clinkers and supply fresh coke 
from time to time. When it is desired to keep a fire 
for any length of time, bank it with wet coal and it 
will keep, gradually changing the coal to coke. 

Blast. — The amount of air forced into the fire has 
much to do with the work. Enough air must be forced 
in to cause the fire to burn with a great deal of heat, 
but if more air is forced in than can be used in burning 
the coke, the excess is a detriment to good forging, 
especially to good welding. This oversupply of air 
produces an oxidizing fire, which means that the excess 
of oxygen attacks the iron and causes it to scale or burn. 
A great deal of scale forming on the iron indicates 
that too much air is being used, and the iron is being 



200 BLACKSMITHING 

burned as well as heated. When brilliant scintillating 
sparks fly out of the fire, it means that the iron is burn- 
ing very rapidly, and will in a short time be ruined. 

The anvil. — The blacksmith's anvil is made of cast- 
iron or soft steel, on the upper surface of which has 
been welded a flat piece of tool steel which has been 
hardened and tempered. The pointed end is called the 
horn, and is left soft. A small flat surface between the 
horn and the hard surface is also left soft for the pur- 
pose of cutting off stock without injuring the edged 
tools. The anvil may be placed so that the horn points 
to the right or to the left, but it will be found more 
convenient to have it pointing toward the right. 



LESSON XXXIV 



STAPLE 

Stock 

I piece iron i" round, 4" long 

Tools 

Hammer 
Tongs 

Operations 

1. Drawing out. 

2. Bending. 

I. Drawing out. — Whenever iron is reduced in 
thickness, or lengthened, it is said to be drawn out. 
This piece of iron is 
to be drawn out to a O 
point at both ends. 
The drawn part is 
to be left square. 
The piece when 
drawn out will be 
about 5'' long. The 
only tools required 
are the hammer and 
tongs for this opera- 
tion. 

201 




Fig. 172. — Drawing out Iron for Staple. 



202 



BLACKSMITHING 




Fig. 173. — Ball Peen Hammer. 



The blacksmith will have use for several kinds and 
weights of hammers, but the one most commonly used 

is called the ball peen 
hammer (Fig. 173). 
This form of hammer 
may be had in vari- 
ous weights, but one 
weighing i^ pounds 
is right for most of 
the work. 

The tongs neces- 
sary for this exercise will be more commonly used than 
any other form. They are illustrated in Fig. 174, which 
gives a side view, and an end view of the jaws grooved 
for holding round stock. 

In drawing out, first heat one end of the iron, holding 
it with the tongs in the center of the fire, and turn on 
the blast. Take it 
out from time to time 
to examine. It should 
be heated brighter 
than a red, but not so 

hot as to burn or sparkle. When sufficiently hot, with- 
draw and hammer for a distance of about i" from the 
end, forcing the metal to flow toward the end. Turn 
the piece quarter round and hammer toward the end 
in the same way, hammering more at the end than 
farther up so as to make it smaller there. This will 
make it square and smaller than the original diameter. 
Continue the hammering toward the end until it be- 
comes pointed. When drawing the end down to a fine 
point, it is necessary to hold the end at the edge of the 




Fig. 174. — Tongs for Round Stock. 



STAPLE 



203 




anvil so as not to strike the 
anvil (Fig. 175). If you 
strike the anvil instead of 
the iron, the hammer will 
rebound with considerable 
force and might strike your 

face, besides spHntering ofF f^^. 175. -Drawing out the Point 

some chips from the edge °^ ™e Staple. 

of the hammer. Draw out the other end in the same 

way. In drawing out, 
take as few heats as 
possible, but do not 
continue hammering 
after the iron has be- 

FiG. 176. — Bending Staple at Middle come black Cold for it 
Point. a- ^t 

will surely split if you 
do. If the iron is not heated hot enough, it will also 
split. 

2. Bending. — When both ends have been drawn out, 
heat the iron and bend it at 
the middle point, holding it 
as in Fig. 176, and striking 
not above the horn of the 
anvil, but just beyond it. 
As the iron bends, continue 
striking it, holding as in 
Fig. 177. 





Fig. 177. — Bending the Staple 
OVER THE Horn of the Anvil. 



LESSON XXXV 
GATE HOOK 







Stock 




I piece o 


f iron f square, 9I'' 


long 






Tools 




Hammer 




Tongs 
Operations 


Flatter 




I. 


Drawing out ends. 






2. 


Forming shoulders. 






3- 


Bending. 






4- 


Twisting. 


• 



1. Drawing out ends. — Draw out the two ends 
l^' square, one of them 2f long, the other 3'' long, 
leaving 4J'' in the middle full size. 

Always draw out stock square before rounding off, 
so as to prevent the iron splitting. When the ends are 
drawn out square and to the size required, round off 
the corners, making as smooth as possible. The end 
drawn out 3'' long should be pointed. 

2. Forming the shoulders. — In forming the shoul- 
ders, heat the iron and place on the anvil at a 
point 2f from one end. Place the flatter or set ham- 
mer directly over the edge of the anvil and hammer 
down approximately to size. Turn the iron one quarter 
round and repeat the operation. Treat the other end 

204 



GATE HOOK 



105 



in the same way. Hammer down the corners and make 
smooth and round, using the flatter with the hammer. 
If you are not careful in placing the iron on the anvil 




T^fs/rh^ /Ae 'S/tonH, 



(■secone/ Aencf) 




sss 




Fig. 178. — Steps in Making a Gate Hook. 

or the flatter directly over the edge of the anvil, you 
will not get a good shoulder. If you do not use the 
edge of the anvil as well as the flatter, the iron will be 
reduced only on one side, or will be off" center. 

The flatter, or set hammer, is not intended to be 



2o6 BLACKSMITHING 

used as a hammer, but is shaped somewhat Uke one ; 
and is used where the hammer marks would mar the iron. 
It is impossible to hammer hot iron so carefully that 
no marks show, and when these marks are objectionable, 
the flatter or some similar tool is used. 

3. Bending. — Bend the eye of the hook first, as 
shown in the drawing, by forcing the end down square 
at the shoulder, and then hammering it around the horn 
of the anvil to a circle having an eye |'' in diameter. 

Be careful not to mar the iron with hammer marks. 
Next bend the hook in the same way except that the point 
is not brought around in the form of a circle, but straight 
up, and then curve the point out a trifle. The bending 
of the hook should be in the same direction as the eye. 

4. Twisting. — In twisting the shank of the hook, 
heat it to a bright yellow heat, being careful not to 
burn it, as the smaller the piece of iron, the more quickly 
it heats and burns. Quickly place it in the vise, and 
with the tongs placed as in the figure, twist one half 
around and, taking a second hold, twist the rest of the 
way around. Straighten out on the anvil. The posi- 
tion of the hook in the vise and the place of the tongs 
on the hook will determine the kind of twist that will 
be given. The closer the tongs are to the anvil, the 
shorter the twist. 

In case the iron for the gate hook must be cut from 
a piece two or three feet long, it will be necessary to 
determine what length of stock to cut off". To do this, 
take a piece of copper wire and bend it with the fingers 
the exact shape of the gate hook that is desired. Cut 
off" the wire and straighten it out. This gives the length 
required. 



LESSON XXXVI 









BOLT 














Stock 










I 


piece 


iron Y' round, y" 
Tools 


long 






H: 


ammer 




Tongs 
Operations 


Headi 


ing 


tool 




I. 

2. 

3- 
4- 


Upsetting the head. 
Heading on the headino 
Squaring the head. 
Chamfering the corners 


; tool. 







I. upsetting the head. — The size of the head of 
the bolt bears a definite relation to the diameter of 
the bolt. The formula is H = i^ X d -{- I. H is 
the short diameter of the head, or, as it is called, the 
distance across the flats, d is the diameter of the bolt, 
i'' in this case. The formula in this case would read — 

£1 — I 2 X 2 ^8~8 • 

The thickness of the bolt head is always equal to 
the diameter of the bolt. 

Upsetting is the process of shortening the length of 
a piece of iron and increasing its width, thickness, or 
diameter. Usually a piece is upset by holding firmly 

207 



208 



BLACKSMITHING 



in the tongs, with the ends of the tongs resting against 
the leg, and hammering on the hot end. 

The hottest part of the iron will be upset most, and 
as the end is usually the hottest part, it will be upset 
the most, and too much sometimes. This can be 
guarded against by cooling the tip end by dipping in 




Using fhe 

Heacii'nej Tool 



Fig. 179. — Steps in Making a Bolt. 

water just before upsetting. This will cause the part 
still hot to be upset, but not the end. Several heats 
will be necessary, and the bar should be straightened 
between heats. 

2. Heading on the heading tool. — After upsetting 
to a diameter of about \" ^ place the bolt in the heading 
tool, which should be placed flat side down on the face 
of the anvil, allowing the bolt to extend down through 
the square hole in the end of the anvil. Hammer the 
head down to a thickness of \" and smooth with the 
flatter. 



BOLT 209 

3. Squaring the head. — In squaring up the head, 
heat to a white heat, and hammer alternately on the 
four sides, taking pains that each of the four sides is 
the same distance from the shank of the bolt, or you 
will likely have a bolt head that is oflF center, or lop- 
sided. The metal will be forced out over the head, 
so it will be necessary to place it in the heading tool 
several times to hammer it back into shape. 

Make the head the required size, l'^ square and ^ 
thick. 

4. Chamfering the corners. — The corners of the 
upper surface, if left as they are now, would catch the 
clothing, and cut and mar anything that happened to 
hit them. To prevent this as well as to make them 
more sightly, they should be chamfered off. Place in 
the heading tool and hammer down the corners slightly, 
being sure that you do not destroy the squareness of 
the head. 



LESSON XXXVII 



CHAIN AND HOOK 




Stock 




I pc. iron 


f round, 10'' long, 


for link 


I pc. iron 


r' X i'\ 1" long, for hook 


I pc. iron 


\" round, 10'' long. 
Tools 


for ring 


Hammer 


Fullers 
Operations 


Punch 


For Link 


For Ring 


For Hook 


I. Measuring. 


I. Measuring. 


I. Measuring. 


2. Bending. 


2. Scarfing. 


2. Fullering. 


3. Scarfing. 


3. Bending. 


3. Punching eye. 


4„ Welding. 


4. Welding. 


4. Shaping hook. 

5. Bending hook. 



Link 

I. Measuring. — When the length of stock is given, 
as in this particular exercise, this operation is unneces- 
sary. However, if the stock must be cut from a longer 

bar of iron, it is necessary 
to determine what length 
of iron is necessary to make 
a link of the required size. 
Let Fig. 180 represent the 
link to be made. An in- 
of this figure 




Fig. 180. — Measuring the Length 
OF Iron necessary for Link. 



spection 



210 



CHAIN AND HOOK 



211 



shows that it consists of two semicircles, one at each 
end, and two straight pieces, one on each side. The 
outside dimensions of the Unk are 4'' X il" and 
the stock is f' round. We take all measurements 
along a center line, indicated by the broken line in 
Fig. I. This line has a radius of {I" at the two ends 
and a length of __««««^«^^^^^^^^^^ ^-^ 




/ 



Fig. 181. — Ends of Link Scarfed. 



2Y' along each of 

the two straight 

sides. The two 

semicircles make 

a complete circle 

with a diameter 

of if'^ and as the circumference of a circle equals 

3.1416 times the diameter, the circumference of this 

circle along the middle line equals 4^6''- The length 

of the two sides equals 2 times 2l'\ or 4!'^ The total 

length is 8|f^'. The length of stock required when we 

make allowance for welding is 10''. 

2. Bending. — The operation of bending is very 

simple. It has been explained in the lesson on the Staple. 

3. Scarfing. — 
Scarfing the ends 
of the link to be 
welded consists 
of flatting out 
the 




Fig. 182. — Scarfed Ends of Link ready for Welding. 



ends with 
the ball peen of 
the hammer or over the edge of the anvil so that when 
bent around, the ends will overlap for the weld. 

Fig. 181 shows the two ends scarfed ready to be 
bent together, and Fig. 182 shows them overlapped. 




212 BLACKSMITHING 

Figure 183 shows the method of holding the Hnk over 
the edge of the anvil in scarfing. Hammer the end 
at a down until it looks like the ends in Fig. 181, then 
reverse and scarf the other end on 
the opposite side in the same way. 
Figure 184 shows how to hold the 
link and hammer when scarfing with 
Fig. 183. — Scarfing ^^^ t)all pecn on the face of the anvil. 
Ends OF Link OVER . Welding. — In heating a piece of 

Edge of Anvil. ^ . •^ ^ i i i 

soft iron or mild steel, the metal gets 
softer and softer until it becomes pasty and then melts ; 
and if the heating is continued, the iron burns and 
becomes worthless. There is a point of temperature at 
which if two pieces are placed together, 
they will stick, or be welded so that ^^^^^ 
they cannot be pulled apart when cold, v^-^^- 
First, then, it is necessary to heat the 
iron to a proper temperature, a welding ^^^ 184. — Scarfing 

. . Ends of Link with 

heat. Secondy it is necessary to force Ball Peen ham- 
the pieces of iron together by hammer- 
ing. Third, it is necessary to hammer the joint to the 
proper shape. 

If the iron is heated too rapidly, the surface comes to 
a welding heat before the interior, and a strong joint 
is impossible. If the iron is burned, a weld is impossible. 
If the iron is heated in a dirty fire, one full of slag and 
cinders, the particles of slag get into the weld and 
prevent a strong joint. If the edges of the scarf are too 
thin, they will cool so quickly as to get below the weld- 
ing heat before the union can be made, and a weld will 
not be complete. If the scarfs have not been lapped 
far enough, the welded joint will be smaller than the 




CHAIN AND HOOK 213 

rest of the iron, and consequently the weakest part of 
the hnk. In view of these facts it is necessary to have 
the following : 

(i) A clean fire of coke. Clean out all the cinders 
and pile the coke into a mound over the tuyere. Turn 
on the blast and place the ends of the link in the middle 
of the fire, just above the tuyere, but not too close to 
the latter, or the cold blast will prevent a welding 
heat. 

(2) The iron must be raised to the proper temperature. 
If two pieces of the same size are to be welded, they 
will heat evenly ; but if the two pieces are unequal in 
size, the larger will heat more slowly, hence it should 
be placed in the fire before the other. 

(3) It is necessary to heat the iron clear through to 
a welding heat, and not merely on the surface. You 
can do this better with a slow fire than with one burn- 
ing fiercely. 

(4) The thin edges of the scarf must be welded down 
first, as they will cool most rapidly. After the edges 
are stuck, then the rest of the iron can be welded into 
a good strong joint. 

(5) Lap the scarfs far enough so that the welded 
joint will be larger than the rest of the iron, then it 
can be drawn down to size ; but if the weld is too small, 
it cannot be upset except with great difficulty. 

In most welds, the ends to be welded should be upset 
before they are scarfed so as to insure the proper size ; 
but in the case of the link, the upsetting will be unneces- 
sary, as the lap will provide enough extra metal to insure 
a good size to the joint. If the weld has not been entirely 
successful, reheat the iron and finish it. Remember 

FARM SHOP WORK 15 



214 



BLACKSMITHING 



that no amount of hammering will weld iron that is 
not at the welding heat, and that quick light strokes 
will weld just as surely as strong heavy blows and will 
not reduce the size of the iron so much. When the 
second link has been welded, and the third is ready for 
welding, place the two welded links on the third before 
welding it. Continue this until a chain of the proper 
length has been made. The length will be determined 
by the use to which the chain is to be put when com- 
pleted. 

Ring 



and as the iron is f round, the diameter of the middle 

j 8 > 



£rnc/s ufosef reo^if for scor/mg. 






Measuring. — The inside diameter of the ring is 3 
th 

line is 
which, when 
making al- 
lowance for 
the weld , 
circumference of 
length of stock 




means a 
'^ the 



10 , 
required. 

2. Scarfing. — Upset the 
ends, and scarf them to a 
point, remembering to scarf 
them on opposite sides. 

3, 4. Bending and weld- 
ing. — Bend in the shape of 
a ring with the ends over- 
lapping. Before closing the ring, place the end link on 
the ring and weld. The process of bending and weld- 
ing are the same as those given for the link. 



Fig. 185. — Steps in Making Ring. 



CHAIN AND HOOK 



215 



Hook 



I. 




Fig. 186. — Using Top 
AND Bottom Fullers. 



Measuring. — The length over all is 3 J'' and the 
diameter of the middle line at the curve is \" . The 
point returns for a distance of 2". 
This makes a total length of j" along 
the middle line. 

2. Fullering. — Fullers are used in 
rounding 
corners and 
making grooves. The top 

Fig. 187.-STOCK Fullered. f^jj^j. -^ ^^^^j ^-^^^ ^ handle, 

and the bottom fuller has a stem 
that fits into the square hardy 
hole in the end of the anvil. (See 

_^ Fig. 186.) 

j ^ico ) Fig. 187 



Stock Fullered. 



I 



ymm////A 



Fig. 189. — End Drawn Out. 

fullered to a depth of -f 



shows the 
piece when 



H 



am- 



FiG. 188. — Flatting Out 
the Fullered End. 



mer down the end until flat and round 
(Figs. 188 and 189). 

3. Punching eye. — With 
the punch placed in the center ) 
of the flattened head, punch , 



an( 



3// 



thick 



I 



I 



one half through the hot iron fig. 190. — Steps in punching 
(Fig. 190). Reverse the iron the e ye. 

and punch from the other side. Drive the punch 

through from each side, enlarg- 
) O^ ing the hole. (See Fig. 191.) 

v_y - 



Fig. 191. — Eye Punched in 
End. 



The edges of the hole should 
be rounded on the horn of the 



2l6 



BLACKSMITHING 



anvil by holding it as shown 
in Fig. 192 and hammering 
around the outside edges, mak- 
ing a smooth round eye with 
the metal the same thickness 
all around. 
, 4. Shaping the hook. — The 

Fig. 192. — Enlarging the Eye hook should be shaped complete 

OVER THE HORN. ^^^^^^ ^^^-^^ ^^^^ p-^^^.^ ^^^ 

shows the shape required. Begin hammering at the eye 
and work towards the tip. A hook has a tendency 
to straighten out 





O 



when strained, so 
to prevent this it 
must be strongest 

at the bend; there- () ( ~ ^^^^^ ^^ 

fore at that place t:^ c xr 

^ Fig. 193. — Shape of Hook before Bending. 

the iron is left 

widest and thickest. The end view in Fig. 193 shows 

the best way to taper the iron towards the back. 

5. Bending the hook. — Bend 
the hook as in Fig. 194. Re- 
member that the middle point 
of the bend must be opposite the 
eye of the hook. 

The opening in the hook should 
be y so as to easily accommodate 
the f links. This form of a hook 
is called a grab hook, because it 
will grab or hold a chain at any 
place, as the opening is not large 

enough for a link to slip through except flatways. 




Fig. 194. — Completed Hook. 



LESSON XXXVIII 



SWIVEL 

Stock 



I pc. iron |" x i" X 4" 
I pc. iron f '' round, 6'' long 



Tools 



Hamm 
Punch 


er Fullers 
Swages 




Operations 


I. 

2. 

3. 


Fullering. 
Drawing out. 
Punching. 


4- 

5- 
6. 

7. 


Swaging head. 
Shaping ring and welding. 
Upsetting pin in place. 
Welding link. 



I. Fullering. — The 
head of the swivel must be 
left full size ; so on each ^ 



• 1 r ^ 1 1 r 11 Fig. 195. — Iron for Link of Swivel. 

side of the head, tuUer 

down to within ^" of the bottom, leaving a block i" 
long, as in Fig. 196, in the middle of the bar. Fuller 

on the top and two 
sides, but not on the 
bottom. In this first 
operation, use the top 





trl 




M 






N^! 




1 i 






Lu 




u 





Fig. 196. 



- /'— H 

Iron Fullered. 



217 



2l8 BLACKSMITHING 

fuller only, but when fullering the sides use both the 
top and bottom fullers. 

2. Drawing out. — Draw out the two ends to ^'^ 
round ; make them even the entire length, and smooth 
down with the top and bottom swage as in Fig. 197. 
A swage is a small tool with the face grooved. Most 

^ '■ i ^ 



Fig. 197. — Iron Drawn Out. 

swages have a semicircular groove, but some have angu- 
lar grooves. They come in pairs and in different sizes. 
A top swage has a handle like a flatter and a top fuller, 
while the bottom swage has a stem that fits into the 
square hardy hole. These tools are generally used 
to give a finish to the work. (See Fig. 198.) 

3. Punching. — The hole for the stem of the eye or 
ring can be punched with a small-sized punch and then 
enlarged by using larger punches. 
The hole must be perfectly round 
and straight in order that the 
swivel may work easily. 

4. Swaging the head. — When 
the hole has been finished, fit into 
it a pin of Y^ round iron or steel 
and hammer the head round, using 
the hammer at first, then the top 
and bottom swages to finish. (See 
^ o ^ ^ Fig. 108.) This operation will be 

Fig. 198. — Swaging Tools. ^ -^ , ^ 

rather difl&cult, but by taking 
pains one can make a good looking head. The pin 
must be kept in the hole during the operation to 




SWIVEL 



219 



prevent it from being hammered out of round and 
reduced in size. 

5. Shaping ring and welding. — In shaping the ring, 

^^ 3i" H 




^ 




Fig. 200. 



^ye-**e/b^eo: 



Making Eye in Pin of 

Swivel. 



bend the two ends 
of the round piece 
of iron as shown in 

Fig. IQQ. Then bend ^^^- ^'^^- — First Bends in Pin of Swivel. 

the middle part into a ring over the horn of the anvil, 
weld the two parts of the stem together and draw down 

to a round stem \" in diam- 
eter (Fig. 200). Use the 
top and bottom swages in 
finishing. 

6. Upsetting pin in place. 
— Before upsetting the pin, 
bend the two arms of the 
Hnk as in Fig. 201 and scarf 
the two ends for welding, but 
leave them far enough apart so that the hammer can 
be used between them in upsetting the stem of the ring. 
Heat the stem 
of the ring to 
almost a weld- 
ing heat, and 
introduce it in- 
to the hole 
and upset, hold- 
ing the tongs 
against the leg for support. The upsetting should be 
done in one heat, as it will not do to heat the link and 
ring together or the head of the Hnk will be hammered 
out of shape. Therefore, heat the stem to a high 





Fig. 201. — End Scarfed for Welding. 



220 BLACKSMITHING 

temperature and work rapidly while the iron remains 
hot. The stem should not be upset too much or it will 
bind when the arms are welded together, and the swivel 
will be useless because it will not swivel. 

7. Welding the link. — Weld the arms together and 
shape as represented by Fig. 202. 



Fig. 202. — Completed Swivel. 



LESSON XXXIX 

TONGS 

There are a great variety of tongs used for various 
purposes, as bolt tongs used for holding bolts, pick-up 
tongs used in picking up small pieces of hot iron from 
the floor, tire tongs used in holding tires, etc. 

Stock 



Iff 



2 pes. of iron f'x i X ^ 
I pc. of iron f '' round, 2" long 

Tools 



I. 



Hammer 

Tongs 

Fuller 

Sledge 


Flatter 
Swages 
Punch 


Operations 




1. Fullering. 

2. Drawing and flatting . 

3. Drawing and swaging 


jaws, 
handles. 


4. Grooving jaws. 

5. Punching holes. 

6. Riveting bolt. 




ering. — Make a chalk mark if'' from one 



end of one of the long pieces of iron, and fuller down 
to a depth of |''. The chunk of metal between the 
groove and end is to be drawn out for the jaw. (All 
operations given here are the same for the two jaws.) 



221 



222 



BLACKSMITHING 



I J'' from the groove just fullered, fuller another 
groove to the same depth, but on the opposite edge 
of the iron. 

2. Drawing and flatting jaws. — Draw down the 
jaws until they are f thick at a and '^' thick at the 
end h. In drawing the jaw down to this thickness it 
will spread out sideways, and care must be taken that 



D 



/ru//erecf for jc 



n 



J at*' /or Tied 



^ 





/^ullennq 
Jot*- 



0/7e /7a/f o/ fbngi comp/eTe 

Fig. 203. 



Steps in Making Tongs. 



it spreads in one direction only. To secure this, lay it 
on the edge of the anvil and hammer the opposite edge 
flat and even with the side of the piece of iron. When 
the jaw has been drawn to the proper shape and size, 
shape it up smooth with the flatter or set hammer. 

3. Drawing and swaging handles. — Draw out the 
handle from the fullered groove to the end, taper- 
ing from \" square at the shoulder to Y' round at the 
end. This drawing will be rather heavy work for the 
hammer, so it will be better to have some one help by 
using the sledge, which is a heavy hammer with a longer 
handle and intended to be swung with two hands. One 



TONGS 223 

must be careful in using the sledge not to strike too 
hard, as a heavy blow on the anvil will injure both the 
anvil and sledge. When the handle has been roughed 
out to size with the sledge, finish the work with the top 
and bottom swage. 

4. Grooving jaws. — If the tongs are to be used in 
holding round stock, the jaws should be grooved with 
the top fuller and the bottom swage ; but if the tongs 
are for flat work as well as round or square stock, they 
should be grooved slightly with the top fuller but not 
swaged The drawing shows how to hold the jaw when 
grooving it for round stock. It is held in the same way 
for flat stock except that the jaw rests on the face of 
the anvil instead of on the swage. 

5. Punching holes. — Punch a f hole in the joint, 
punching from both sides so as to get the sides of the hole 
straight and parallel. The j aws should be fitted together 
with the rivet in place, but not riveted, as it will prob- 
ably be necessary to do some fitting and shaping before 
they will fit and work smoothly. If one is longer than 
the other, it can be upset, or the shorter one drawn out ; 
and the joint must be very smooth and flat in order 
to have the tongs work well and close completely. 

6. Riveting the bolt. — Upset one end of a piece of 
f round iron or steel, using a heading tool to make 
a rivet head ; cut it oflp lY' long and heat and drop in 
the hole; and then rivet the other end with the ball 
peen of the hammer, taking care that it is not riveted 
so tight that the jaws cannot be moved when the iron is 
cold. When a heavy pair of tongs is wanted, make the 
jaws out of heavy iron and the handles out of lighter 
stock so as to make the work of drawing down easier. 



LESSON XL 

WRENCH 

Stock 

I pc. iron i^" x f X 5'' 
I pc. iron i J'' x i" X 4" 

Tools 

Hammer Hot chisel 

Tongs Fullers 

Punch Flatter 

Operations 

1. Fullering. 

2. Punching. 

3. Shaping jaws. 

4. Welding and shaping handle. 

1. Fullering. — Instead of making this wrench from 
one bar, two pieces of different sizes are used so as to 
reduce the labor of drawing down so much stock for 
the smaller end of the wrench. Two inches from one 
end of the larger iron, fuller down each edge, and round 
this end up approximately circular. 

2. Punching. — Punch a f hole in the center, and 
with a hot chisel cut a piece out of the end along the 
dotted lines (Fig. 204). A hot chisel is made for cutting 
hot iron, while a cold chisel is made for cutting cold 
iron. The hot chisel is tempered the same as the cold 

224 



^m 



WRENCH 



225 



chisel, but the blade is slimmer and the edge is not 
so blunt. The hot iron soon takes the temper out of 
it, so it must frequently be retempered. One should 
never be used for the other. 




^oi chisef. 



Sp/,f .scarf 

Fig. 204. — Steps in Making a Wrench. 

3. Shaping the jaws. — The jaws are shaped up 
over the horn of the anvil, and keeping in mind that 
the greatest strain will come at the shoulders, they 
should be kept as thick as possible at these points. Be 
sure that the inside edges are kept parallel, and that 
the end of the opening curves slightly so as to accom- 
modate hexagonal nuts and heads. 

The smaller end of the wrench is worked up the same 
way. Make the openings f and \" . 

4. Welding and shaping handle. ^ When the jaws 
are completed, the two pieces can be welded and the 
handle shaped. As the ends must be upset, two 
methods are given, either of which will make a strong 



226 BLACKSMITHING 

joint if properly done. In the ordinary lap weld, the 
ends are scarfed and then lapped and welded. In the 
split weld, one end is split and the other upset to lit 
into the split. One advantage of the split weld is that 
one man can make it, while the lap weld is more easily 
made with a helper, though one man can do it, if ex- 
perienced enough. Be careful not to get the edges too 
thin. When properly welded, draw down the handle 
to the shape of the completed wrench. 



LESSON XLI 

HARNESS HOOK 
Stock 



I pc. 


iron 2" X ir X \" 


I pc. 


iron f diameter, G' long 




Tools 


Hammer 


Drill or punch 


Tongs 


Flatter 
Swage 




Operations 



1. Drawing out hook. 

2. Scarfing plate and hook. 

3. Welding and punching holes. 

I. Drawing out hook. — Draw out the iron for the 
hook in a straight piece, working from the large end 
toward the small end. If you were to reverse the direc- 
tion, the small end would get so hot on account of its 
smaller size that it would burn before the larger part 
was hot enough to work. 

Draw the piece approximately round the entire dis- 
tance, and when straight and smooth, finish with the 
swages. As the sectional views in Fig. 205 indicate, the 
hook is not round the entire distance, but elliptical for a 
part of the way ; so, with the flatter, flatten out slightly 
until it is of the dimensions given in the drawing. The 
tip should be upset slightly and rounded off" into the 
form of a ball so as to prevent any cutting or scratching 
of the harness. 

227 



228 



BLACKSMITHING 



2. Scarfing the plate and hook. — - The large end 
of the hook is upset and scarfed as for a lap weld. The 
plate is scarfed by hammering a depression in the sur- 
face along one side with the ball peen of the hammer. 
This will force some of the metal to bulge out beyond 
the edge. Do not let it get too thin. This is a dif- 
ficult weld to make properly. 




Fig. 205. — Steps in Making a Harness Hook. 

3. Welding and punching holes. — The two pieces can- 
not be held together and welded very easily by one man, 
so a helper will be needed. Heat both pieces to the 
welding heat, and place together quickly on the anvil. 

Hammer down the tip of the hook first and then 
reverse and hammer down the scarf on the plate ; after- 
wards weld the body together. It may take two heats 
for this weld. Unless it is a complete success, the hook 
will not be strong enough to hold any weight, as most of 
the strain comes on the weld. Drill or punch two holes 
for the screws, and bend up the hook to the proper shape. 



LESSON XLII 
IRONS FOR WAGON JACK 



■^r 



ii 



ii 



1. Take two pieces of iron of the dimensions given 
in Fig. 206, and lay off a distance of 4'' on each. 

2. Bend at this point as 
shown in the drawing. (It 
is not necessary to have a 
square corner.) 

3. On the shorter piece 
lay off a distance of |" from 
the corner. Heat and bend 
back at right angles, making 
the piece parallel with the 
longer piece. 

4. Heat end a and lay it p-^^ 2o6.-Irons for ^ago^Sack. 
on the block of soft iron 

found between the horn and the face of the anvil. 
With a hot chisel and sledge, cut around an arc of 
a circle. 

5. Punch or drill screw holes and hole for pin. 



^ 



I 



FARM SHOP WORK 



16 



229 



LESSON XLIII 
IRONS FOR THREE-HORSE EVENER . 

I. The irons for the three-horse evener are J'^ thick 
and z" wide. Each of the four that connect the single- 
trees to the doubletree is represented by a, Fig. 207. 
They are 8^' long. The holes, which are \" in diameter, 
are W apart. The irons connecting the doubletree to 
one end of the evener are represented by h, c, and d, 
b is ()" long; and the holes, which are f in diameter, 
are 6^" apart, c and d are iij'^ long; and the holes, 
which are \" in diameter, are ()" apart. These two 
irons are bent in a reverse curve 4'' from one end and 
3 ''from the other end ; and the amount of the offset is 2". 
Irons e and / and g connect one singletree to the other 
end of the evener. e is 15" long; and the holes are 
12^'' apart. One of them is \" in diameter and the 
other is \" in diameter. / is iif long; and the holes, 
both of which are J'' in diameter, are 9f apart. This 
iron is bent in a reverse curve 2" from one end and 4'' 
from the other end; and the offset is 2". g is 12 J'' 
long; and the holes, one of which is f in diameter 
and the other J'' in diameter, are 9^ apart. This is 
bent in a reverse curve 5 J'' from one end and if 
from the other end; and offset is 2'\ 

Make the following bolts and rivet : 3 bolts f X 4" 
with a small hole 3^'' from the head, for a cotter pin; 
5 bolts J'' X 3'' with a small hole 2 J'' from the head, 
for a cotter pin ; i rivet y X i'' to rivet together pieces 
e, f, and g. 

230 



■ -J 1 




TT 








ni 












\ 


0^ 


^ 




\ 


Ch 






1 . 




> - 
Ji 


^s^ 


T '^^ 




u-^ -H 


J 




K^H 








K^H 


n 

3] 




=7 


Trr 

w 

(y 


\-.^-\ 


t 




/I 

2 
\J 1 




' r 




'(^ 


.i_ .1- 


1 

d 

_ 





231 



232 



BLACKSMITHING 



2. If hooks as shown in Fig. 208 are to be used at 

the ends of the singletrees, make them of J'' round iron. 

One end of each is drawn out to a blunt point and then 

lapped over the shoulder 
of the hook. Enough 
clearance must be left at 
the lap so that the cock- 
eye of the tug will sHp 
in the hook. The hooks 
are threaded and fas- 
tened to the singletrees 
with nuts and washers. 
3. Clips as shown in 
Fig. 209 are better for the 

ends of the singletrees than the hooks shown in Fig. 208. 

For the flat rings covering the ends of the singletrees, 



-T2 




^13 rhcls. per inch 

Fig. 208. — Singletree Hooks. 





Fig. 209. — Clips for Ends of Singletrees. 

it will be necessary to measure carefully the circum- 



IRONS FOR THREE-HORSE EVENER 233 

ference of the ends and calculate the amount of stock 
necessary to make a good fit, after allowance has been 
made for the spht 
weld. The iron for 



1 




this flat ring should ^^ "^ 'JpTl^car/ 

be about i" wide 
and \" thick, 
will be necessary to |— 
rivet into the mid- 
dle of this piece a 

staple to keep the ^^^ ^lo.- Irons for Ring and Staple of Clip. 

hook on the ring. 

When it is riveted in place, the hook must be inside 
the staple. Punch two holes \" apart and in the 
middle of the length, then lay aside until the other two 
pieces are prepared. (Fig. 210.) 

4. The staple is simply tapered at each end down 
to \' diameter, but not to a point, and bent as shown 
in Fig. 210. 

5. The round iron for the hook is f '' in diameter and 
is tapered at one end and scarfed at the other end for 
a lap weld. Bend the large end until it meets the iron 
again 1" from the point. Weld it at this place and 
bend the point around, making a hook. Place this 
hook in the staple, and rivet the ends of the staple 
in the holes punched for them. It will be well to 
make a split weld of the piece for the ring, as it is flat 
and thin. To do so, split each end for a distance of 
\" and hammer down to a blunt edge ; then bend one 
piece up and the other down. Then form the strip 
into a ring and fit the split scarfs together. Weld 
and finish smooth and round. 



LESSON XLIV 



IRONS FOR PLANK DRAG 
I. For the eye bolt in the plank drag you will need 



<^" of \" round iron. (Fig. 211.) 
2. Scarf one end for a lap weld. 

I ^Gi 



:^ 



end scaefett 



f/rst bencf 



UZ3 



3. Five inches 
from the other end 
bend the rod at 
right angles, taking 
care that the scarf 
is on the outside 
so that when it is 
bent around it will 
fit on the rod. 

4. Weld the eye 
and cut a thread 
on the other end 

to which you can fit a nut. The chain can be attached 
to the eye with a split link or a clevis. The making 
of the chain and ring has already been described. 




V 




Comp/ete bo/i: 

Fig. 211. — Bolt fob Plank Drag. 



234 



LESSON XLV 



IRONS FOR COMBINATION LADDER 

I Each of the two side pieces that hold the ladder 
support is cut out of thin iron along the dotted hnes 
shown in Fig. 212, and a hole is drilled for the bolt i 
from the round end a. The other holes are for the 
screws and should be countersunk. The end h should 
be cut at the same angle that the steps are placed 
with the stringers. 



T 



■3^ 



Q.^ 



s t^ 




^ 



IDK 



tt 



r 



<^/i 



/6- 

FiG. 212. 



Irons for Combination Ladder. 



2 Each of the narrow straps is drilled for screws 
and is fitted around the end of the support above the 
slot to strengthen it. 

3 The iron hooks are laid out upon the plates with 
a soft pencil, and are then cut with a cold chisel on a 
cast-iron plate or on the soft spot of the anvil. 

235 



236 BLACKSMITHING 

The whole should be filed up smooth. The lip a 
should be bent down at right angles, to the right on 
one hook and to the left on the other, to serve as a lift 
for the fingers when raising the hook from the rung of 
the ladder. It is quite necessary that these hooks fit 
nicely, so it will be well to try them before finally fit- 
ting them permanently in place. 

4. The long bolt is made from \'' round iron, and 
should be long enough to connect the two broad iron 
straps. 



LESSON XLVI 



IRON FOR LEVELING ROD 



second -Ai"^ 
bend 



o ; : o 

o i i o 



T 



I. A piece of strap iron 
or heav}^ soft brass, Fig. 
213, can be used for this 
slide. It is laid out with a 
pencil ; and a hne \\" from 
each end is drawn across 
the piece, leaving z" in the 
middle. Two other lines 
\" from each end complete 
the laying out. The two 
ends are bent down at right 
angles. At the lines \" 
from each end the iron is 
bent out again. The screw holes are then drilled 



Fig. 213. — Iron for Leveling Rod. 



237 



LESSON XLVII 



IRONS FOR FARM GATE 



I. For each hinge of the farm gate three pieces of 
iron are needed. The dimensions of each piece are 
given in Fig. 214. Bend the end of each flat piece 
around, making a lap weld so as to leave a ^'^ hole at 



7/ 



/z 






:zL 



^ p,n ufisef. 



]0, 



I 




f/rsf bend. 



a 



TTTl 



eye. 



Fig. 214. — Hinge for Farm Gate. 

the end. It will be well to run a \" drill through this 
hole to smooth it out. Drill and countersink the screw 
holes. 

2. Draw out one end of the spike to a sharp round 
point ; scarf the other end, and weld into an eye with 
a \" hole in the eye. 

3. The pin is upset at one end, and placed in the 
eye of the spike and welded there. 

238 



LESSON XLVIII 

IRONS FOR CATTLE RACK AND CORN RACK 

No dimensions can be given for the irons for the corn 
rack, as they will depend upon the kind of wagon used. 



ek 






i 



Fig. 215. — Hooks for Stanchion of Cattle Rack. (Two of each size.) 

The irons for the stanchion of the cattle rack are 
shown in Fig. 215. 

239 



LESSON XLIX 



IRONS FOR WAGON BOX 



I. Each of the 8 strips used to fasten the crosspieces 
on to the side boards, is rounded at one end for a dis- 
tance of 3''; and is made fin diameter. This rounded 
end is threaded for a nut and the other end is bent to fit 
over the top edge of the side boards (Fig. 216). 



1 e 



o| 



i Hh^ 






iiw»; o 



[0 



SndGate ffod 

DO 2" 



30 



Tail Nut 








for end Gctfe ^od 



JEZUDL 



Fig. 216. — Irons for Wagon Box. 

2. The four brackets used on the sides of the box are 
made from \" round iron bent in the shape shown in 
the drawing. The lower end of each is threaded for 
a distance of 4'' and the upper end flattened out and 
a bolt hole punched. 

240 



IRONS FOR WAGON BOX 241 

3. The two strips that hold up the foot rest in 
front are made of the same material as the strips for 
the sides. Seven inches from one end they are bent 
in the shape indicated. Both ends are flattened and 
bolt holes punched in them. 

4. The two brackets for the foot rest are made of 
f round iron 12'' long, bent in the shape shown in 
Fig. 216, flattened at the ends, and punched for the 
bolts. 

5. The end gate rods are bent at one end into an 
eye z" in diameter, and welded. A round button of 
f " iron is slipped on the rod and welded up close to the 
eye to furnish a smooth bearing for the eye. The other 
end is threaded. 

6. The nut with a curved handle, called a tail nut, 
is made to fit the threaded end of the end gate rod. 
It is forged out of a round bar of iron, the end of which 
is made into an eye in the same way as the spike of the 
gate hinge, the eye is flattened down smooth and a hole 
bored and threaded. 

7. The plate or washer that is made for each end of 
the end gate rod, is fastened on the side boards by two 
screws. Some prefer to have the washer threaded at 
one end instead of having a tail nut, which is frequently 
lost. This washer is forged by welding on to its middle 
a piece of round iron cut from an inch bar, and drilling 
it the required size. The plate is then cut diamond- 
shaped with the hot or cold chisel ; and the two holes 
are then bored in the ends for the screws. 



LESSON L 
TOOL STEEL 

Wrought iron contains practically no carbon and 
cannot be used for tools because it cannot be hardened. 
Tool steel contains a small percentage of carbon and 
can be hardened and tempered ; therefore it can be 
used in tool making. The amount of carbon in tool 
steel determines the degree of hardness it will attain 
when hardened. High carbon steel, or high temper 
steel, has a large percentage of carbon ; and low carbon, 
or low temper steel, has a small percentage of carbon. 

Low carbon steel can be welded, but with more diffi- 
culty than wrought iron. The more carbon steel 
contains, the more difficult it is to weld. 

Tool steel must be treated differently from wrought 
iron in forging. It must not be heated so high or it 
will burn and crumble under the hammer. Heat to 
a red heat for all forging, and do not hammer cold. 

Tempering. — Tempering tool steel consists of two 
processes: (i) hardening, and (2) drawing the temper. 
Heat a piece to a cherry red and dip it in water. The 
steel is now as hard as it can be made and a file will 
not cut it. It is also very brittle, and a blow of the 
hammer will shatter it; consequently, it is of little 
value for tools that have to be driven with the hammer 
or sledge. If the piece is slowly and carefully reheated, 
the hardness will gradually disappear, and if heated 

242 



TOOL STEEL 243 

long enough, it will be as soft as it was before harden- 
ing. In order to temper steel properly, it should 
be hardened " right out " and then the temper drawn 
until it is of the proper hardness and toughness for the 
work expected of it. Heat to a cherry red ; and plunge 
the end in water for a short distance, leaving a portion 
above still hot. The heat from above will gradually 
soak down into the hardened point, softening it, and 
if the point is smooth and bright, different colors will 
appear on the bright surface. In order to get a bright 
surface on which the colors may be easily detected, after 
hardening, rub the surface with a piece of broken 
grindstone, emery wheel, smooth file, or sandpaper. 

The first color to appear will be a pale yellow, or 
straw color, to be followed in order by dark straw color, 
brown, light purple, dark purple, pale blue, and finally 
dark blue. As soon as the proper color appears, the 
piece should be plunged all over in the water. Tools 
requiring steel of great hardness should be tempered 
to a straw color ; tools of soft steel should be tempered 
at the dark blue color. 

Punch. — Using a piece of round or octagon steel, 
forge it down to the shape of the punch shown in Fig. 
217 and do not heat above a cherry red in forging. 
When hammered to shape, grind or file smooth and 
round. Then heat the tapered end to a cherry red and 
dip in water, holding the punch vertically. Dip to a 
distance of about one inch, and withdrawing, rub the 
surface hardened with something to brighten it ; and 
then watch for the colors, as they will appear when the 
heat from above soaks down to the hardened part. 
When the purple color gets down to the point, plunge 



244 



BLACKSMITHING 



^^iiifiiliiii 



I 



m 



^llliiii^^ 



Fig. 217. — Punch and Cold Chisel. 



in water all over. Test with a file, and if it is too soft, 
reheat and harden and temper over again. Unless you 
know just the amount of carbon in the steel, it will be 
necessary to experiment a little with different degrees 

of heat in harden- 
ing and tempering, 
until you can pro- 
duce the desired 
results. 

Cold chisel. — 
Forge a cold chisel 
like that shown in 
Fig. 217, and harden and temper in the same way as the 
punch. Use the flatter in smoothing up the sides of 
the taper. 

In grinding tools, take care not to heat them enough 
to draw the temper, or you will get them too soft. 

Casehardening. — Casehardening is preparing wrought 
iron or steel of low carbon so that there is a coating 
of high carbon steel on the surface, while the interior 
remains soft and tough. 

The thickness of this coating is determined by the 
length of time the process is carried on. It is similar 
to the old cementation process of making steel, which 
consisted in heating the iron in a box filled with chips 
of leather, horn, or charcoal, until the carbon had 
soaked into the iron, transforming it into steel. It will 
not be necessary to follow this method, for we do not 
need a very thick coating of carbon on the pieces that 
are usually casehardened. If the piece is heated 
red hot and plunged in a box of powdered cyanide of 
potassium, the carbon from this chemical will soak into 



TOOL STEEL 245 

the iron for a distance depending on the length of time 
it is left there. When the piece is suddenly cooled 
by quenching in water, the surface is as hard as though 
it were tool steel all through. If a wearing surface is 
casehardened, it lasts longer and wears smoother. 
Ends of set screws and the faces of small hammers are 
casehardened, and sometimes bolts, when there is to be 
considerable wear on them. Cyanide of potassium is 
a very powerful poison, and if there are any sores or 
cuts on the hands, it will be well to wear gloves while 
using the cyanide, as very dangerous cases of poisoning 
have resulted from carelessness in its use. 



FARM SHOP WORK 1 7 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 
WORK 

LESSON LI 

CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

Portland cement is made from clay and limestone 
pulverized and burned at a high temperature ; the mass 
is then pulverized a second time and sifted, whereupon 
it is ready for use. 

Natural cement is made from limestone that has 
about the same composition as the artificial cement. 
The process of manufacture is much the same as that 
by which Portland cement is made. 

Concrete. — In making concrete for any purpose, 
sand and gravel or crushed rock are mixed with cement 
and water. The sand and gravel are used simply to fill 
up space and thus make it unnecessary to use so much 
cement, as the latter is very expensive. The cement 
binds the particles of sand and gravel together, making 
artificial stone. The sand should be clean and coarse. 
Experiments show that rounded grains of sand give as 
good results as sharp sand, and that as small a per- 
centage of dirt as 5 per cent is objectionable. Sand 
of a varying degree of coarseness is better than that of 
uniform coarseness. The proper size of the crushed 
rock or gravel depends upon the use to be made of the 
concrete. Plain concrete can be made of coarser gravel 
than reenforced concrete. 

246 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 247 

A sieve with a i'' mesh for phiin concrete and 
one with a 4" mesh for reenforced concrete has been 
found satisfactory. Gravel of varied sizes has been 
found better than that of uniform size. 

Proportions. — The proportions of the various in- 
gredients depend upon the use required. 

A rich mixture used in water tanks, arches, and reen- 
forced concrete floors subject to vibration, is made in 
the proportion of i 12:4; that is, i part cement, 2 parts 
sand, and 4 parts gravel or rock ; or i part cement and 
4 parts sand. This is probably the best concrete used 
for any purpose. 

An ordinary mixture of i : 3 : 6 can be used for cellar 
and barn floors, sidewalks, foundations, and abutments. 

A lean mixture, 1:4:8, may be used in large heavy 
foundations for stationary loads, or for backing for 
masonry ; richer mixtures are necessary for loaded 
columns, beams, arches, and foundations laid under 
water. 

Mixing concrete. — Concrete can be mixed either 
by hand or by machinery. Whatever method is used 
in mixing the concrete, the 
following points must be 
looked after : (i) the exact 
amount of cement, sand, 
and stone must be meas- 
ured out ; (2) the mass 
must be thoroughly mixed ; ^ 

(3) the proper amount of Fig. 218. — Platform for Mixing 

^1 J Concrete. 

water must be used ; 

(4) the concrete must be thoroughly rammed. 
Hand mixing. — A suitable platform may be con- 




248 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK 



structed of i" planed boards, nailed to cleats or cross- 
pieces of 2" X \" . The size of this platform is de- 
termined by the amount of work to be done. One 
10' X 12' will be large enough for all ordinary purposes, 
and one considerably smaller will do for small jobs and 
repair work. 

The platform should be placed as near the work as 
possible and in such a position that the sand and gravel 
can be unloaded near it. It is well to nail a strip around 
the edges of the platform to prevent the cement from 
spilling. 

A measuring box can be made of rough inch boards 
of a size that can be handled conveniently. It should 

be made with project- 
ing handles and with- 
out bottom and top. 
The cement is measured 
and spread out on the 
platform with a rake, 
and the sand measured 
over it. The mass is 
thoroughly mixed by 
shoveling it over to one 
side of the platform and then back again, and repeat- 
ing the operation until the mixture shows a uniform 
color. Then it is spread out in a layer about 6" 
thick, and the gravel or crushed stone measured and 
placed on top. Over this the required amount of water 
is poured, and mixed thoroughly by shoveling the mass 
over two or three times. 

A wet concrete is a mixture containing enough water 
to make the mass flow. This is simply poured into the 




Fig. 219. — Measuring Box for Concrete. 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 249 

molds and allowed to harden. When the molds are 
complex or reenforcing rods are laid near the surface, 
the wet mixture is necessary to fill the mold properly. 

A dry mixture is one which will not flow, and re- 
quires ramming in order to fill the mold properly. 
A dry mixture will just show water on the surface when 
properly rammed. 

Ramming is unnecessary in wet mixtures ; but in 
ordinary mixtures it is advisable and necessary to a 
strong piece of work. A ram can be made of a piece 
of 2" X \" timber nailed to a handle. 
For dry mixtures a larger ram made of 
iron should be used, and the concrete 
should be rammed until the water 
shows on the surface. dpad^ 

Spading. — The ramming will have 
the eflPect of forcing some of the stones 
against the surface of the molds, 
which, if allowed to remain there, ^^ 

would make an unsightly appearance, fig. 220— Spade and 
To overcome this, run a flat spade ^f^ ^«^ Concrete 

' ^ Work. 

down between the forms and the con- 
crete, pushing the stones back from the surface, and 
allowing the cement to flow into the space thus formed. 
Do not pry the concrete enough to spring the forms 
out of shape. 

Bonding. — New^ cement can be bonded to old con- 
crete so as to make water-tight joints if great care is 
taken in washing the joints with Kquid cement made 
of equal parts of cement and sand. In construction 
work when all the concrete is not laid the same day, it 
is well to make a joint on top of the last concrete. Lay 



250 CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK 

a piece of timber 2" X ^" or of any suitable dimensions 
in the top layer of concrete. Take it out before laying 
the new concrete, wash the joint thoroughly, and cover 
with rich cement, 1:1, 

Freezing. — Sometimes the smooth surface of con- 
crete will peel off, due to freezing, but otherwise it does 
not seem to be affected by freezing. In very cold 
weather the materials used in making concrete should 
be warmed to prevent freezing before setting. The 
addition of a small quantity of salt to the water used 
lowers the freezing point. About one pound of salt to 
a sack of cement will do no harm and may keep the 
cement from freezing until it has set. No load should 
be placed on concrete until the weather is warm enough 
to allow it to set properly. 

Time for setting. — It takes from 12 to 48 hours for 
concrete to set, depending upon the weather, the con- 
sistency of the concrete, and the thickness of the work. 
Wet and cold weather will retard the setting of the con- 
crete. Arch work requires a longer time for setting 
than walls. Dry concrete sets much more quickly 
than wet concrete. 

Forms. — The lumber for concrete forms makes 
quite an item of expense, and therefore one should 
devise ways of getting results with the minimum amount 
of lumber. Green lumber is better than kiln-dried 
lumber, because the latter soaks up too much of the 
water from the concrete, and swells and warps too 
much. If the lumber is smooth on the inside of the 
forms, it produces better looking work ; however, rough 
lumber may be used in most form work, and afterwards 
it may be used in framing buildings or for repair work. 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



251 



Forms should be kept from the sun when not in use, 
and the insides should be coated with oil or soft soap 
just before using. Forms should be designed so that 
they can be taken apart and used again for the same 
work; and should be so well made that the water and 
cement cannot leak out through the joints. 





Tongue and groove boards. Beveled boards. 

Fig. 221. — Lumber for Concrete Forms. 

Tongued and grooved lumber makes the best forms, 
but beveled or even squared lumber will do, if well 
matched. 

The thickness of the lumber used depends upon the 
distance between the studs, and the height of the 
green concrete. For ordinary work done on the farm, 
one-inch lumber reenforced by 2" x 4'' studs every two 
feet has proved satisfactory. The forms should be so 
rigid that there is no bulging of the sides. 



LESSON LII 

SIDEWALKS AND FLOORS 

Sidewalks. — The climate and the character of the 
soil very largely determine the method of laying the 
foundations for sidewalks. It is important to have a 
good foundation, for one that is poorly laid will cause 
the ruin of the best walk. It should be laid so as 
not to hold water, which, by freezing, might bulge and 
crack the cement ; therefore, a porous soil will not 
require so thick a foundation as an impervious one. 
Likewise, in a mild climate, foundations need not be so 
thick as in a severe one. As a rule, foundations should 
be laid from 4'' to 10'' thick. 

Suppose we wish to build a sidewalk consisting of 
a 4" layer of concrete resting upon a G' foundation, 
with the surface of the walk 2" above the level of the 
ground. Excavate to a depth of 8''. Fill in 6'^ of 
crushed rock, gravel, or cinders, tamping it thoroughly 
as it is being filled. Do not postpone the tamping 
until all the filling is done, but level off each load and 
tamp the successive layers so that the entire founda- 
tion may be firm, but porous. It is a good plan to wet 
down the foundation as it is being tamped, for in this 
way it can be made more compact. 

252 



SIDEWALKS AND FLOORS 



253 



The excavation should extend three or four inches 
on each side of the walk to allow for drainage. Place 
2" X ^' stringers on each side on top of the founda- 
tion. These stringers must be perfectly straight, and 
the inside surfaces should be smooth. 

Drive stakes down outside the stringers to hold them 
in place. 

The proportion usually required for sidewalks is 
1:2:4. Mix with sufficient water to make the concrete 
moderately wet, and tamp until water appears on the 




Fig. 222. — A Concrete Sidewalk. 



surface. The finishing coat is made of i : i mixture, 
which is spread on about \" thick. A strong bond 
between the finishing coat and the concrete must be 
made or the cement will in time chip and peel off. To 
prevent this, coat the surface with pure cement before 
making the bond. It is sometimes spread on the 
concrete before the latter has set. The finishing coat 
is leveled off by drawing a straightedge over the 
edges of the stringers. After straightening out the 
surface, smooth with a float and groove with a jointer. 





254 CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK 

It is desirable to make a slight slope to the outside of 
the walk to drain off the water. The grooves are 
placed in the walk so that portions may be replaced 
or relaid without the difficulty of cutting out portions 
with a chisel. The jointer can be used to round the 
outer edges of the walk so that all four edges of the 

block will be rounded. If the 
surface of the cement is troweled 
too much, it will not wear well. 

j^ZJT^ "" The walk must be kept covered 

and wet for two or three days 
after being laid, to allow it to 
dry uniformly throughout the 
mass, rather than on the surface. 
^'^^^ A good covering is wet sawdust 

Fig. 223. — Float and Jointer. . 

or wet sand. 

Sometimes the walk is laid out so that alternate 
blocks are laid and allowed to set ; then the remaining 
blocks are filled in. This necessitates placing 2" x 4" 
crosspieces for the alternate blocks and removing them 
when the remaining blocks are filled in. 

Cellar floors. — These may be laid without any 
foundation because there is no danger of any frost 
getting under them. 

The process of laying a floor is similar to that of 
laying a sidewalk, and the mixture is made in the 
same proportions. The size of the sections in the 
cellar floor may be made larger than those in a 
walk, and the stringers removed as soon as the cement 
has set. 

Barn floors are laid in the same way as sidewalks, 
with the same kind of foundations, and with cement 



SIDEWALKS AND FLOORS 255 

of the same proportions. The surface should be left 
rough or grooved to prevent animals from slipping. 

Expansion joints. — Concrete expands and contracts 
hke iron, and in large areas such as barn^floors it is 
necessary to make provision for this expansion, because 
of the wide range of temperature. The best method of 
preventing damage by expansion is to lay the floor in 
small sections or blocks. This produces many cracks 
which will take up the expansion. 



LESSON LIII 

FOUNDATION WALLS AND STEPS 

Foundation walls. — Foundation walls for a house 
or a barn should be from 8'' to 12'' thick with a footing 
of from 16'' to 2o" , according to the size and weight of 




Fig. 224. — Foundation Wall of Concrete. 

the building to be placed on them. Pieces i" X 4" 
should be driven in the ground every 2', and braced 
by pieces of the same dimension, as shown in the draw- 
ing. \" boards are nailed to the inside of these pieces 
with the bottom board about 6" up from the bottom of 
the trench, allowing the concrete to flow out under it to 
form the footing. 

256 



FOUNDATION WALLS AND STEPS 



257 



If the walls are to be built up a considerable distance 
above the surface of the ground, the 2" x \" pieces 
should extend above the last board, so that the forms 
that are to be placed on top can be fastened to them and 
so held in line. All forms should be carefully braced 
so as to keep them from bulging. The sides should 
be spaded and the concrete cast in layers and tamped 
carefully. Use concrete of the following proportion : 
I part cement, 2\ parts sand, 5 parts gravel or crushed 
stone. 

Steps. — In making the steps of a porch or cellar, 
the riser, or vertical face, of a step should be propor- 




FiG. 225. — Concrete Steps. 

tioned to the tread, or horizontal surface, so that the 
sum of the two will equal 15. Therefore, a step with 
a ^" riser needs a 10'' tread, and one with a 6" riser 
needs a 9'' tread to make the two proportional. 

In making concrete steps, the outside walls (^, Fig. 
225) are laid either on a porous foundation that w411 
drain water, or they are laid below the frost Une. 



258 CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK 

Inside the walls gravel is packed at the same slope 
or angle that the steps are to be laid. Over this the 
concrete should be placed to a depth of four inches. 
In this concrete, reenforcing of woven wire should be 
placed. Beginning at the top, lay a plank upright and 
brace with stakes. The plank should be as wide as 
the rise of the steps. Fill the space between the board 
and the concrete slope with concrete to the level of 
the top edge of the plank and trowel off smooth. When 
the concrete has set, remove the plank and place it for 
the next step. Continue in this way until all the steps 
are complete. The steps should be the same width as 
the walk. 

The vertical face of each step may be made smooth 
by troweling on a thin layer of rich cement, 1:1, after 
the concrete has set and the plank has been removed. 

A nosing can be made for the front edge of the steps, 
if it is desired, by making a form the shape and size 
wanted and laying on a thin top layer of cement extend- 
ing out over the edge of the step in the nosing. This 
requires a good deal of extra work and is not necessary 
in ordinary steps. 



LESSON LIV 

CONCRETE TROUGHS 

Hog trough. — A concrete hog trough may be made 
by making a bottomless box from 4' to 6' long, 22'' 
wide, inside measurements, and 10'' deep. Make a V- 




FiG. 226. — Concrete Hog Troughs. (Triangular and Semicircular Types.) 

shaped trough 6" shorter than the inside length of the 
box, with two boards, one of which is 13'' wide and the 
other 12" wide, nailed together at right angles to each 
other, as shown in the upper part of Fig. 226. This 

259 



26o CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK 

makes the two inner sides equal in width. Fit a tri- 
angular piece of 2" plank in the ends and nail in place. 
Bevel the edges of the two sides of the trough so that 
when laid upside down on a platform there will be no 
crack between the form and the platform. Lay the 
trough upside down on a platform of smooth matched 
boards, and place the bottomless box over it so that 
the two ends are equidistant from the ends of the 
trough, and the sides are also equidistant from the 
sides of the trough. The upper edges of the box should 
project above the V of the trough about \\" . 

Pour the concrete, i part cement and 3 parts 
coarse sand or line gravel, into the mold and tamp 
lightly, and smooth off the upper surface with a float. 
Remove from the forms in four or live days and paint 
the inside with pure cement of creamy consistency. 

If a semicircular trough is preferred to the V-shaped 
trough, make the form semicircular by cutting out two 
semicircular pieces from a 2" plank, with a ']\" radius. 
To these pieces nail narrow strips beveled on the edges, 
so that when they are nailed in place, there will be no 
cracks between the strips for the cement to leak 
through. 

If the trough is a long one, several semicircular pieces 
of plank should be placed equidistant apart. Reen- 
forcing of wire netting should be used in the casting, 
or several iron rods, Y' diameter, should be inserted in 
the four corners, about \" from the surface. 

Water trough. — The walls of a water trough should 
be at least G" thick for those of ordinary size, and 
much thicker for large ones. If no reenforcing is used, 
make the walls twice as thick to prevent cracking. 



CONCRETE TROUGHS 261 

To make it water-tight, the entire tank must be cast 
at one operation. A richer mixture of concrete must 
also be used than that used in other pieces of work, and 
the concrete must be quite wet. 

Inlet and outlet pipes can be cast in the concrete 
during the pouring if desired ; if not possible to cast 
them then, place greased plugs where they are to go, 
and insert the pipes afterwards. 

Having decided upon the size of the trough desired, 
make a bottomless box of this size, having the sides 
slope in towards the top ; that is, the top of the box 
should be about 2" narrower than the bottom. 

For a small trough, excavate the surface of the ground 
down until hard firm soil is reached ; and then tamp 
this down flat and level. For a large trough, it will be 
necessary to excavate about \2" and make a founda- 
tion similar to a concrete sidewalk. Lay down smooth 
an 8'' layer of cinders or gravel and on this a \" layer 
of concrete of the proportions used in building side- 
walks. On the top of this foundation place the box in 
position and brace in place, as shown in Fig. 227. 
The number of braces needed will depend upon the 
size of the box. They should be about 2' apart. The 
inside of this form should be smooth and greased 
if you wish to remove it without breaking it up. 
The inside box has a bottom in it, and should be 
at least \^" narrower and \^" shorter than the out- 
side box or form. This form should slant in the op- 
posite direction from the outside form ; that is, it 
should be narrower at the bottom than at the top 
so that it may be readily removed when the cement 
has set. 

FARM SHOP WORK — l8 



262 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK 



The outside of the inner form must be smooth and 
greased. It should be braced on the inside if the tank 
is over three feet long. The depth of the inner form 
must be 6" less than that of the outer form, so that 
when the two are in place with their upper edges on a 
level, the bottom of the inner form will be 6" from the 




Fig. 227. — Forms Set for Concrete Water Trough, 



foundation. The inner form should be supported by 
two pieces ^" x 4'', nailed to it by strips and long 
enough to project over the ends of outer box. Place 
the forms in position so that the walls are everywhere 
equidistant, then nail on two cleats that are just long 
enough to fit in between the supports of the inner form. 
These cleats are for the purpose of keeping the inner 
form in the proper place and to prevent it from being 
moved by the tamping and spading of the cement. 



CONCRETE TROUGHS 263 

The mixture of concrete must be rich in cement. Use 
I part cement, i part sand, 3 parts broken stone or 
gravel. If you use gravel as it comes from the bank, 
use I part cement and 3 parts gravel. Have the inner 
form all ready and greased before beginning the casting, 
and be sure to mix enough concrete for the entire 
trough before beginning the work. Spread concrete 
on the foundation, and on this lay the reenforcing of 
expanded metal or wire lath, bending it up on all four 
sides to within 2" of the top of the trough. 

On top of the reenforcing, place ^" more of concrete, 
and then put the inner form in place and fasten the re- 
enforcing of the sides so that it will be midway between 
the walls of the forms. Pour the concrete in place and 
spade It so that the larger stones are forced away from 
the surfaces. The inner form may be removed in two 
or three hours and the inside painted with pure cement 
of creamy consistency, using a brush. Do not remove 
the outer form for at least ten days. If the work is 
kept covered and wet during this time, the trough will 
then be ready for water. The outside may be painted 
with pure cement if desired. In that case, remove the 
outside form in two days and after wetting down the 
outside of the tank, paint with pure cement, using a 
brush. 



LESSON LV 

FENCE POSTS 

Concrete fence posts are being used quite extensively, 
as they have many advantages over the wooden posts. 
In the first place, the concrete posts will last forever 
when properly reenforced ; then, too, the cost is but a 
trifle more than for wooden posts of the best quality, if 
the labor is not counted in. 

The posts, for ordinary purposes, should be 6'' square 
at the base, 4'' square at the top, and "]' long. If it 
is desired to place them below the frost line, for north- 
ern latitudes they should be made longer, but it is not 
necessary for them to be placed so deep. 

The corners above the ground should be beveled, and 
they should be reenforced with wire or rods, hooked at 
the ends. 

Molds. — Make a platform 8' long by 2' wide of 
planks or boards surfaced on one side and matched or 
tongued and grooved, and fastened together with several 
cleats 2" X 4''. Then prepare the form for casting 
three posts at once. Use the following pieces : 

4 pieces 7' 2" long, G" wide at one end and \" wide at the 

other, \" thick, {a) 
I piece 26'' long, 6" wide, \" thick, (Z>) 

1 piece 2o" long, dj' wide, \" thick, (c) 
3 pieces 6" long, 6" wide, \" thick, {d) 
3 pieces \" long, \" wide, \" thick, i^e) 

2 pieces 6" long, 2" wide, \" thick, (/) 
2 pieces \" long, 2" wide, \" thick, (g) 
6 pieces triangular in shape \' long, (A) 

264 




265 



266 CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK 

Nail the 2" strip / in place at one end of the piece h^ 
then nail on one of the blocks d, which are i " x ^" X 6'', 
with just enough space between it and block /for one 
of the pieces a. Nail on the other blocks in the same 
way. Make the other end in the same way, using the 
blocks which are i''X4''X4'' and spacing them the 
thickness of the strips a. Figure 228 shows the form 
when completed and put together. The strips a are 
not fastened in place, and can be removed when the con- 
crete is set, by removing the two end pieces h and c and 
lifting the strips. 

The triangular strip k is placed as shown in the detail 
drawing so as to bevel ofFthe two lower corners. The 
two upper corners can be beveled by pressing down 
similar strips on top or by troweling a bevel along the 
two upper corners. 

Casting. — Use i part cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 
parts gravel or crushed stone. Spread the concrete 
in each mold to the depth of \" and lay on this the two 
reenforcing wires about \" from each side. Bend the 
ends of the rods over in the form of a hook so that they 
will come to within 2'' of each end. (See Fig. 229.) Then 
pour on another layer of concrete to within \^' of the 
top, place the other two reenforcing rods in similar 
manner, and fill the molds full of concrete over this 
reenforcement. Spade the sides well and trowel the 
top to make it as smooth as possible. 

Some provision must be made for holding the wire 
fence to the posts. One way is to twist short pieces of 
doubled copper wire No. 12 as shown by x, Fig. 228, 
and insert them in the wet concrete at the positions 
where the wires of the fence will come. Another wav is 



FENCE POSTS 267 

to insert greased iron rods (3;, Fig. 228) |'' in diameter 
in the center of the posts, making a round hole clear 
through the post. These rods can be held in place by 
tacking a strip on top of the forms where the holes are 
to be, and boring ^" holes through this strip so that 
each hole will be over the middle of each post. An- 










Fig. 229. — Reenforcing Wires in Fence Post. 

Other method is to cast in the post a round hardwood 
plug to which the wires may be nailed with common 
staples. Sometimes galvanized screw eyes are cast in 
the posts and the fence fastened to these by twisting 
short pieces of wire around both. 

If necessary to brace the mold to keep the two outer 
sides from bulging, a strip may be tacked across the 
top about the middle of the mold. Corner posts should 
be made larger and longer than common posts. 

As these posts are quite heavy, to save handling they 
ought to be cast where they are to be used. It is possi- 



268 CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK 

ble to cast braces to the corner posts at the same time 
the posts are cast, but the whole must be cast in an up- 
right position ; but as it requires a great deal of skill 
to make the forms as well as to pour the cement, it 
should not be attempted by the beginner. 

Hitching and clothesline posts can be made in the 
same way as common posts. However, they should 
be made larger and with a ring and staple cast in the 
top. Bend the ends of the staple in the form of a hook, 
to prevent its being pulled out. Forms should not be 
removed for three days after casting and the posts 
ought not to be used for two weeks, during which time 
they must be kept wet so as to harden properly. 



LEATHER WORK 



LESSON LVI 

HARNESS MENDING 

Although the mending of harness is commonly con- 
sidered to be within the province of the harness-maker, 
there is no good reason why the farmer should not 
make many of his own repairs. Harnesses can be kept 
in good repair at very little expense. Although many of 
the processes seem comphcated, they are really not so, 
and can be mastered easily. The purpose of this 
lesson is to show how simple repairs can be neatly 
and strongly made. 

Thread. — A good thread is necessary in making 
strong and lasting repairs. Good linen must be se- 
lected, and considerable care exercised in making the 
thread. Hold one end 
between the second 
and third fingers of the 
left hand ; pass the 
thread around a nail or 
hook and bring back, 
catching between the 
thumb and finger of 
the same hand. With the right hand, roll the thread 
downward over the knee, as shown in Fig. 230, and pull it 
apart with a jerk. The rolling untwists the strands and 

269 




Fig. 230. 



Untwisting the Strands of 
Thread. 



270 LEATHER WORK 

makes the thread easy to break. Never cut or 
break a thread without untwisting it, as that would 
produce a blunt end, while the untwisting leaves a fine 
tapering end. The process is repeated until enough 
strands have been broken to produce a thread of the 
required strength, — three for light work and five or 
six for heavy stitching. In putting the ends of the 
broken threads together, do not leave them exactly 
the same length. By leaving some shorter than others 
a pointed thread is made, fine enough to go into the 
eye of the needle. Draw the thread tight so there will 
be no loose strands, and wax the ends. 

Holding the thread as shown in Fig. 230, twist it by 
rolling it with the right hand over the knee. It is kept 
from untwisting by catching it up with the thumb 
and finger of the left hand. The threads are not 
doubled before twisting. 

Waxing. — When well twisted throughout the entire 
length, wax by rubbing well and quickly over the entire 
length. The ends should be waxed more than the rest 
of the thread so the needle can be attached more se- 
curely. If the thread is twisted too much, it is apt 
to knot in using. The thread may be smoothed after 
waxing by rubbing it with a piece of soft leather. Wax 
is used on the thread to give it strength and smoothness, 
and to preserve it. Cobbler's wax may be obtained 
from the harness-maker or the shoemaker. It is made 
of pitch and resin, in equal parts, heated and thoroughly 
mixed. To this is added a small quantity of tallow 
in hot weather and a larger quantity in cold weather. 
If the thread becomes sticky, smear some fat on the 
fingers and rub the entire length. 



HARNESS MENDING 



271 




Fig. 232. — Pricking Wheel. 



Threading the needle. — A single thread is used and 
a needle is attached to each end. The needle must be 
threaded securely ^ - r.^^ 

and in such a way Fig. 231. — Twisting the End of the Thread 
that the thread ^^™ threading the Needle. 

where it leaves the eye is not thicker than the needle. 

If it is larger, it will soon wear out or the needle will be 

broken in stitching. Pars about two inches of the 

thread through the 
eye, twist the end 
around the thread and 
rub down smooth. 
Stitching. — When 

good work is required, mark out the line of stitching 

with the compass and run a pricking wheel over this 

hne (Fig. 232). The 

points on the wheel cut 

into the leather and 

make distinct marks 

where the holes are to 

be made with the awl 

(Fig. 235). 
The sharp edges of 

the leather must be 

removed with an edg- 
ing tool. To obtain 

an even thickness and 

a smooth surface the 

ends of the leather 

must be beveled before 

stitching. This is done 

by shaving the ends with a round knife (Fig. 233). 




fd^/ng Too/ 




/^ound Knife 



Fig. 233. — Edging Tool and Round Knife. 



272 LEATHER WORK 

The work while being stitched is held in a sewing 
horse. The awl is pushed through from the right side. 
When the first hole has been made, the needle is passed 
through from the left side and the thread drawn through 





Fig. 234. — Stitching Work held in Sewing Horse. 

until an equal length is on each side of the leather. The 
next hole is made with the awl and the left-hand needle 
brought through this. When the thread has been 
drawn through about three inches, the right-hand needle 
is passed through the same hole. 

The awl makes a diamond-shaped hole and the left- 
hand thread should be kept in the angle nearest the 




Fig. 235. — Stitching Awl. 

stitching already done, while the right-hand thread 
must be kept in the upper angle. This can be accom- 
plished by pulling away a little from the body with the 
right hand and slightly towards the body with the left 
hand. Pull both threads firmly at the same time. 



HARNESS MENDING 273 

When the stitching is completed, the thread can be 
fastened by turning back one stitch. Cut it off flush 
with the surface of the leather. 

To obtain good stitching, it is necessary : 

(i) That thread of a kind and strength suited to the 
nature of the work be selected. 

(2) That the thread be smooth, well twisted, and 

well waxed. 

(3) That the stitches all be drawn equally tight, and 

made firm without cutting the leather. 

(4) That the needles be used in the right way. 

(5) That the awls be correctly used. 

(6) That the stitches be of equal length. 

(7) That the holes be of equal size and angle. 

Splicing. — In splicing, it is necessary to shave the 
two ends to be joined down to a thin edge, Fig. 236, 
with the round knife. Then stitch along each edge, 
fastening the threads at the ^ ^ ^L 

ends. In mending a broken | r"''^ | 

tug, if the break occurs at U-— 

any place other than where 
the cockeye is fastened, it 
should be done by spHcing, 

, • T-- ^ TT 1 Fig. 236. — Splicing a Strap. 

as shown m 1^ ig. 236. It the 

break occurs in the loop holding the cockeye, it can 
be repaired as shown in Fig. 237. The illustrations 
show the reverse, or inside, of the tug. First, a 
piece must be cut out of the inside layer and the 
outside piece beveled with the round knife. The in- 
side piece must be beveled in the same way. Then 
a piece of new leather is beveled at one end on the 



274 



LEATHER WORK 




237 



Repairing a Broken Tug. 



-"ff'^'^-s flesh side and at the 

other end on the 
grain side. The 
strip is placed 
around the cockeye 
and the two ends 
are stitched with 
a seven-strand 
thread. 
Fastening a buckle and loop. — In stitching on a 

buckle and loop, bevel one end of the strap with the 

round knife ; then make the hole for the tongue of the 

buckle by punching two holes, as in Fig. 238, and cutting 

out the leather be- 
tween with the points 

of the round knife. 

For the loop, cut a 

strap long enough to 

reach around two 

straps the size of the 

one used, and bevel 

both ends on the flesh 

side. Put the buckle 

in place and hold in 

the sewing horse with 

one end of the loop 

inserted in between 

the two edges to be 

stitched. Stitch as 

shown in the drawing. 




Fig. 238. — Inserting a Buckle and Loop. 



Turn the strap over and insert 
the other end of the loop so that the two ends meet m 
the middle between the straps, and stitch. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ADDITIONAL WORK 

The drawings on the following pages will suggest 
additional work which may be done by pupils who 
are more rapid in their work and more skillful in the 
use of tools than the other members of the class. The 
dimensions and other features of the things to be 
constructed may be modified as desired by teacher or 
pupils. 



275 




276 





FARM SHOP WORK — IQ 



277 




Top View 



2/ 







6j — 



, i%^ 



— 6 






^O' 



Side View 
Fig. 242. — Brooder, 



278 



Tfer 



l"^ 



pr 
I 



'f ^_ 



U:^^v.-:%: 



36- 



Fig. 243. — Brooder, End View. 



ig- 



!!^H!!fttf: 



ii 





section onAB. 




Fig. 244. ^Butter Worker. 
279 



m 




fnd V/e^v- /^ayRoc/C. 





Top //ei^ - /iac/ RocK. 

17/7 be corii/erfecf mfo i^oac/ ivc 
Otf /if'i'n^ /op off. ("Jcf f/ff/r 9 



1 


II 


II _ 


II 


:' :; ;i ii 1 








II 


1 ; il :i ii 1 



H 



TIL 



IE 






J^Q[L 



J/cfe yiet^-Ziac/ RacH. 
Fig. 245. — Hay Rack. 



280 







__L 



Fig. 246. — Umbrella Rack. 



28] 




Fig. 247. — Museum Cabinet. 



282 



>iii>i>iijii}iii}ii^ ^i}>iiiiiiii>lriim !k 



P/onofA.B. 



- Bl Ei B^ - 



D 



I -m 'u/^///////i'//////f^^< 



W^/////^/'ff/^f///(7Z, 



v\\\\\\\\\\.\\\\\\.\N 



Front J/'de ^Section. 

Fig. 248. — Bookcase. Scale, i"=i ft. (From Craftsman design.) 



383 




Fig. 249. — Library Table. 




Fig. 250. — Dining Room Chair. 



284 



K?ii 






y^ 




/ 










/ 







/\ 



V 



Fig. 251. — Revolving Bookcase and Table. 



285 



INDEX 



Angles, for setting bevels, 165. 
Annual rings, 159, 162, 163. 
Anvil, 200. 
Arkansas stone, 194. 
Ash, 159, 160, 161, 163. 
Assembling, definition of, 8. 
Auger bits, 166. 
Awl, stitching, 272. 

Backsaw, T73. 

Ball peen hammer, 202. 

Barn floors, concrete, 254, 255. 

Basswood, 159, 160, 163. 

Beam, of bevel, 165. 

of marking gauge, 7, 169. 

of try-square, 6, 174. 
Beech, 159, 163. 
Bench hook, 1-9. 
Bench stop, 144, 
Bevel, 21-24, 165. 
Beveled boards, 251. 
Birch, 71, 159, 160, 161, 163, 164. 
Bitbrace, 166. 
Bits, 166. 

Blacksmithing, 197-245. 
Blade, of bevel, 165. 

of plane, 169, 170. 

of saws, 173, 175. 

of steel square, 177. 

of try-square, 174. 
Block plane, 171. 
Board measure, 180, 181. 
Bolt, making, 207-209. 



Bonding concrete, 249. 
Bookcase, drawings only, 283, 

285. 
Boxwood, 163. 
Brace measure, 177-180. 
Braces, 179, 180. 
Broadleaf trees, 159. 
Brooder, drawings only, 278, 279. 
Brush, glue, 188. 
Buckle and loop, harness, 274. 
Butternut, 159, 160, 163, 164. 
Butter worker, drawings only, 

279. 

Cabinet, museum, 282. 
Carbon, in steel, 242. 
Carborundum, 195, 196. 
Carpenter's bench, 138-145. 
Casehardening, 244, 245. 
Cattle rack, 122-126. 
Cedar, 159, 160, 163. 
Cellar floors, concrete, 254. 
Cement, 246-268. 
Chain and hook, making, 210- 

216. 
Chair, dining room, drawings 

only, 284. 
Charcoal, 199. 
Checks in lumber, 162, 163. 
Cherry, 160, 163. 
Chest, tool, 146-158. 
Chestnut, 160, 163. 
Chicken feed box, 56-60. 
287 



288 



INDEX 



Chicken house, drawings only, 

276, 277. 
ChiseHng, 16-18. 
Chisels, 167, 168. 
Circle,method of cutting, 101,102. 
Clamps, 185, 186. 
Close-grained woods, 163. 
Clothes rack, 36-38. 
Clothes tree, 39-43. 
Coal, for forging, 198, 199. 
Coarse-grained woods, 163. 
Cobbler's wax, 270. 
Cockeye, harness, 273, 274. 
Cocobola, 160. 
Coke, 199. 

Cold chisel, making, 244. 
Combination ladder, 89-95. 
Compass, 25. 
Concrete, 246-268. 

mixing, 247. 
Cooking glue, 187. 
Corn rack, 118-121. 
Corundum, 194, 196. 
Cottonwood, 159, 160. 
Countersinking, 9. 
Crosscut saw, 172. 
Cyanide of potassium, 245. 
Cypress, 164. 

Dining room chair, drawings 

only, 284. 
Doubletree, 109-112. 
Dowel holes, 39, 40, 150-153. 
Dowel pins, 40, 150-153. 
Dowels, 39, 40, 1 50-153. 
Drawing out, iron, 203. 
Drawshave, 168. 
Dry mixture, concrete, 249. 

Ebony, 160, 163. 

Edging tool, for leather, 271. 



Elasticity, of woods, 161. 
Elm, 159, 160, 161, 163. 
Emery, 194, 196. 
Expansion joints in concrete, 

255- 
Extension bit, 166. 

Farmer's level, 96-104. 

Farm gate, 113-117. 

Filing saws, 189-196. 

Filler, wood finishing, 42. 

Fir, 159, 164. 

Firmer chisel, 167. 

Flatter, 204-206. 

Fleam, of saw teeth, 173. 

Float, for concrete work, 254. 

Floors, concrete, 252-255. 

Folding sawbuck, 27-30. 

Foot board, wagon box, 136. 

Foot rest, wagon box, 137. 

Forge, 197-200. 

Forms for concrete, 250, 251. 

Foundation walls, concrete, 256. 

Framing chisel, 167. 

Framing square, 177-184. 

Freezing, effect on concrete, 

250. 
Fullering, 215. 
Fullers, 215. 

Gate hook, making, 204-206. 
Gauge, marking, 7, 169. 
Gimlet, 167. 
Glue, in woodworking, 14, 15, 

185-188. 
Glue brushes, 188. 
Gouge, 168, 169. 
Grain, of wood, 163. 
Gravel, 246, 247. 
Grinding edge tools, 192-196. 
Grindstone, 193. 



INDEX 



Halved joint, 12-14. 
Hammer, ball peen, 202. 
Hammer handle, making, 71-74. 
Hardness, of woods, 160. 
Hard pine, 160. 
Hardwoods, 159. 
Hardy hole, of anvil, 215. 
Harness hook, making, 227, 

228. 
Harness mending, 269-274. 
Hay rack, drawings only, 280. 
Header, 130, 131. 
Heading tool, 208. 
Heartwood, 160. 
Hemlock, 159, 160, 164. 
Hickory, 71, 159, 160, 161, 163. 
Hinges, for level, 100. 
for farm gate, 238. 
Hip rafter, 183. 
Hog cot, 127-132. 
Hog trough, concrete, 259, 260. 
Holly, 160. 
Horn, of anvil, 200. 
Hot chisel, 224. 

Iron, for leveling rod, 237. 

wrought, 242. 
Irons, for cattle rack and corn 
rack, 239. 
for combination ladder, 235, 

236. 
for farm gate, 238. 
for plank drag, 234. 
for three-horse evener, 230- 

233- 
for wagon box, 240, 241. 
for wagon jack, 229. 
Ironwood, 71, 161. 



Jack plane, 
Jack rafter, 



71- 
[83. 



Jointer, saw, 191. 

for concrete work, 254. 

Kerf, 46. 

Kiln-dried lumber, 163. 

Knife, marking with, 3, 4. 

Lap weld, 212-214. 

Laying out, definition of, 2. 

Letting in, definition of, 65. 

Leveling rod, 105-108. 

Level square, 10-19. 

Library table, drawings only, 

284. 
Lignum vitae, 160. 

Mahogany, 159, 163, 164. 
Maple, 71, 159, 160, 163, 164. 
Marking gauge, 6, 7, 169. 
Measure, brace, 177. 

board, 180, 181. 
Measuring box, for concrete, 

248. 
Medullary rays, 159, 160. 
Miters, 140, 154, 156. 
Mixing concrete, 247. 
Molds, for concrete, 259-263, 

264-268. 
Mortise, 39, 40. 

Mortise and tenon joint, 39, 40. 
Museum cabinet, drawing only, 

282. 

Natural cement, 246. 
Needleleaf trees, 159. 
Norway pine, 160, 164. 
Nosing, of steps, 258. 

Oak, 160, 161, 163, 164. 
Octagon scale, 181, 182. 
Oilstones, 194, 195. 



290 



INDEX 



Osage orange, 160. 
Oxidizing fire, 199, 200. 

Palms, 159. 
Paring chisel, 167. 
Pine, 159, 164. 
Planes, 169-171. 

block, 171. 

jack, 171. 

smoothing, 171. 
Plank drag for roads, 75-78. 
Plumb bob, 15, 16. 
Poplar, 160, 163. 
Porch chair, 31-35. 
Portland cement, 246. 
Posts, concrete, 264-268. 
Pricking wheel, for leather, 271. 
Punch, making, 243, 244. 
Purlins, 130. 

Rabbet, 149, 150, 155. 

Rafters, 182, 183. 

Rafter tables, 182. 

Red oak, 160. 

Redwood, 160. 

Revolving bookcase and table, 

drawings only, 285. 
Ripsaw, 172. 
Rise, of rafters, 182, 183. 
Riser of steps, 184, 257. 
Rock elm, 161. 
Rosewood, 160. 
Round knife, for leather, 271. 
Rule, 171. 

Run, of rafters, 182, 183. 
of stairs, 184. 



Sand, 246, 247. 
Sandpaper, 175. 
Sandpaper block, 175, 
Sapwood, 160. 



76. 



Sawbuck, 20-30. 

Saw jointer, 191. 

Saws, 172, 174, 175. 

Saw setting, 191, 192. 

Scarfing, 211. 

Scribing, 51. 

Set hammer, 204, 206. 

Sewing horse, 79-84. 

Sharpening, of chisels, 192, 193. 

of planes, 192, 193. 

of saws, 189-192. 
Sheep-feeding trough, 49-55. 
Shellacking, 34, 38, 42, 43, 158. 
Shrinkage, of wood, 161-163. 
Sidewalks, cement, 252-254. 
Singletrees, 109-112. 
Slips, 194. 
Soft maple, 160. 
Soft pine, 163. 
Softwoods, 159. 
Splicing, leather, 273. 
Split weld, 226. 
Spokeshave, 25, 168. 
Spring wood, 159. 
Spruce, 159, 160, 163, 164. 
Spur, of marking gauge, 7. 
Squaring, definition of, 3, 6. 
"Staggering" nails, 140, 141. 
Stains, 42, 43. 
Stairs, 184. 
Stanchion, of cattle rack, 122- 

126. 
Staple, making, 201-203. 
Steel square, 177-184. 
Stitching, harness, 271. 
Stitching awl, 272. 
Straightedge, 21. 
Strength, of woods, 161. 
Summer wood, 159. 
Surfacing, 4. 
Swaging, 218. 



INDEX 



291 



Swaging tools, 218. 
Swivel, making, 217-220. 
Sycamore, 160. 

Target, for leveling rod, 108. 
Tempering steel, 242, 243. 
Thread, for harness mending, 

269-273. 
Three-horse evener, 109-112. 
Tongs, making, 221, 223. 
Tool chest, 146-158. 
Tool steel, 242-245. 
Toughness of wood, 161. 
Trap nest, 61-65. 
Tread, of stairs, 184, 257. 
Trimmer, 130, 131. 
Turntable, 96, 103, 104. 
Tuyere, 198. 

Umbrella rack, drawings only, 

281. 
Upsetting, definition of, 207. 



Valley rafter, 183. 

Varnish, 42. 

Vise, of work bench, 141-143. 

Wagon box, 133-137. 
Wagon jack, 66-70. 
Walnut, 159, 163. 
Warping, of lumber, 162, 163. 
Washita stone, 194. 
Weight, of wood, 161. 
Welding, 212-214. 
Western hemlock, 163. 
White oak, 160, 161, 164. 
White pine, 160, 161, 164. 
Wind, definition of, 4. 
Woodworking, 1-196. 
Worjc bench, 138-145. 
Wrench, making, 224-226. 
Wrought iron, 242. 

Yellow pine, 164. 
Yellow poplar, 159. 



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